/O.^lji.  'Ol. 


^  PRINCETON,  N.  J.  ^^ 


Presented    by""^e.^^  .  C  "^  .  S^^Orx^. 

kBR  145  .W43  1840  \ 

Wharey,  James,  1789-1842.  | 
Sketches  of  church  history! 
I 


SKETCHES 


OT 


CHURCH   HISTOR\ 


COMPRISING    A 

REGULAR     SERIES    OF    THE     MOST    IMPORTANT 
AND    INTERESTING    EVENTS    IN    THE 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH, 


FROM    THE 
BIRTH  OP  CHRIST  TO  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

BY  THE^ 
REV.  JAMES  WHAREY. 

A   SEW  BDITIOIT    RBVISED    AND    COBRECTED. 


PHILADELPHIA :      ' 
PRESBYTERIAN  BOARD  OF  PUBLICATION. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1840,  by 
A.  W.  MITCHELL,  M.  D., 
the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Eastern  District 
of  Pennsylvania. 


Stereotyped  br 

S.  DOUGLAS  WTETH, 

No.  7  Pear  St,  Philadelphii 

Printed  by 
WM.  S.  MARTIEN 


CONTENTS 


Preface, 7—12 

CENTURY  I. 

Introductory  remarks.— 1.  State  of  the  world  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.— 2.  Life  and  Death  of  Christ —3.  Ex- 
traordinary success  of  the  Gospel— 4.  Form  and  order  of  the 
primitive  churches.— 5.  Errorists  in  the  primitive  churches.— 

6.  Persecution. 13 — 27 

CENTURY  II. 

Spread  of  the  Gospel.  — 2.  Persecution  under  the  Roman 
Emperors. — 3.  Rise  of  Monachism. — 4.  Origin  of  the  dis- 
tinction between  Bishop  and  Presbyter.— 5.  Fathers.- 6.  Rites 
and  Ceremonies.— 7.  Heretics.      ...       -      27—40 

CENTURY  III. 

Persecution  under  Decius.  — 2.  Boundaries  of  the  church 
extended.— 3.  Learning.— 4.  Increase  of  the  power  and  au- 
thority of  bishops. — 5.  Writers. — 6.  Theology  corrupted. — 

7.  Ceremonies  multiplied.— 8.  Heresies.       -       -       40 — 50 

CENTURY  IV. 

Persecution  under  Diocletian.  —  2.  Constantine. —  3.  Julian 
the  Apostate. — 4.  Learning. — 5.  The  church  corrupted  by  its 
connexion  with  the  State. — 6.  Writers. — 7.  Corruptions  in 
Doctrine. — 8.  Controversies. — 9.  Ceremonies. — 10.  Donatists. 
—11.  Arian  heresy. 50—71 

CENTURY  V. 

General  interests  of  Christianity.  —  2.  Learning.  —  3.  Form 
and  government  of  the  Church. — 4.  Degeneracy  of  the 
clergy. — 5.  Monkery. — 6.  Writers. — 7.  Theology. — 8.  Super- 
stitious and  human  inventions. — 9.  Mystics. — 10.  Vigilan- 
tius. — 11.  The  Donatists. — 12.  Arians. — 13.  Nestorians. — 
14.  Eutychians.— 15.  Pelagians.         -       -       -      ..71—99 

iii 


IV  CONTENTS. 

CENTURY  VI. 

General  interests  of  Christianity. — 2.  Literature. — 3.  Monk- 
ery.— 4.  Theology. — 5.  Rites  and  Ceremonies. — 6.  Sects. 

99—108 

CENTURY  VII. 

Extension  of  Christianity.  —  2.  Mohammedism. —  3.  Litera- 
ture.— 4.  The  Roman  church  receives  the  title  of  head  of 
all  the  churches — 5.  State  of  religion. — 6.  Sects.— 7.  Mon 
othelites.         - 108—117 

CENTURY  VIII. 

Extension  and  sufferings  of  the  church. — 2.  Increase  of  cor- 
ruptions and  power  among  the  clergy. — 3.  Slate  of  religion 
—4.  Literature. — 5.  Controversies.     -        -        -      117 — 127 

CENTURY  IX. 

The  Church  still  extended  in  the  West.  —  2.  Saracens  and 
Normans. — 3.  Ignorance  and  corrupt  lives  of  the  clergy. — 
4.  Pope  Joanna. — 5.  Power  and  profligacy  of  the  Poniins. — 
6.  Monkery. — 7.  Relics. — 8.  Learning  and  theology. — 9.  Con- 
troversies.— 10.  Grace  and  Predestination. — 11.  Contests  be- 
tween the  pontiffs  of  Rome  and  Constantinople  — 12.  Rites 
and  ceremonies. — 13.  Ancient  sects.         -        -        128 — 147 

CENTURY   X. 

External  state  of  Christianity. — 2.  Literature. — 3.  Wretched 
morals  of  the  clergy. — 4.  Doctrinal  perversions  and  extrava- 
gances.— 5.  Ceremonies. — 6.  Paulicians.     -        -    147 — 154 

CENTURY  XI. 

Efforts  to  extend  Christianity. — 2.  The  Quwadeg,^ commen- 
ced — 3.  Dictates  of  Hildebrand. — 4.  Profl^acy  oTtne  Monks. 
— 5.  Arrogance  of  the  Pope. — 6.  Berengarius  opposes  Tran- 
substantiation. — 7.  Paulicians  migrate  to  the  West. 

154—166 

CENTURY  XIL 

Effort*  still  made  to  convert  the  barbarous  tribes  of  the 
West. — 2.  Prester  John. — 3  Crusades — 4.  Learning. — 5. 
Arrogancy  of  the  Popes,  and  profligacy  of  all  Orders. — 6.  Su- 
perstition.—  7.  Indulgences.  —  8.  The  Petrobrussians. — 9. 
Henricians. — 10   Waldensee.     ....      166—176 


CONTENTS. 


CENTURY  XIII. 

Mogul  empire.  —  2.  Crusaders.  —  3.  Learning.  —  4.  Tyranny 
01  the  popes. — 5.  Monks. — 6.  Dominicans. — 7.  Franciscans, 
— 8.  Theology.— 9.  Flagellants'I^^lO.  Rites  and  ceremonies. 
— 11.  Inauieition. — 12.  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit. 

-"^^  177—197 

CENTUBI  XIV. 

Religious  wars,^^ — 2.  Literature.  —  3.  Pope's  claims  of   au- 
-■"thority,  and  bull  Unam  Sanciam. — 4.  Two  popes. — 5.  Men- 
dicants.—6.  John  Wickliffe. — 7.  Contests  of  Franciscans.— 
8.  Cellites.— 9.  Theology.— 10.  Ceremonies.— 11.  Sects. 

197—209 

CENTURY  XV 

Spread  of  popery,  and  depression  of  ihe  Greek  church. — 
2.  Revival  of  learning  in  Western  Europe. — 3.  Corruption 
of  the  popish  church. — 4.  Western  schism,  and  Council  of 
Constance. — 5.  John  Huss  and  Jerome  burnt.— 6.  Council 
of  Bale. — 7.  Religious  fraternities. — 8.  Lollards,  Waldenses. 
Calixtines,  and  Taborites.— 9.  Fanatical  sects.    -    209—220 


CENTURY  XVI. 

CHAPTER  L 

Corrupt  state  of  the  church.— 2.  Profligate  lives  of  the  popes. 
— 3.  Profligacy  of  the  clergy. — 4.  Monks. — 5.  Inquisition, 
and  ignorance  of  spiritual  teachers. — 6.  Indulgences. — 7.  Re- 
vival of  learning. — 8.  Witnesses  for  the  Troth.'"  -    221 — ^227 

CHAPTER  XL 

Luther  opposes  indulgences.  —  2.  Pope's  first  bull,  which 
Luther  burns. — 3.  Joined  by  Melancthon — 4.  Luther  at 
Worms.  5.  Carolostadt.— 6.  Zwingle. — 7.  Dispute  among 
the  Refbrmers. — 8.  War  of  the  Peasants. — 9.  Diets  of  Spire. 
—10.  Anabaptists. — 11.  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  pacifica 
tion  ratified  at  Augsburg. — 12.  England. — 13.  Scotland. — 
14.  Ireland.— 15.  Netherlands.        -        -        -         227-241 

CHAPTER  III. 

•he  Jesuits. — %  Francis  Xavier.— 3.  Profligacy  of  the  popes. 
— 4.  Bull  In  Coena  Domini. — 5  Points  contested  in  the  Ro- 
man church.— 6.  Oriental  churches.        -       -        242—247 
I*  * 


VI  CONTENTS. 


CIIAPrER  IV. 

Adiaplutiistic   and    Synergistic   controversies.  —  2.  Flaciua — 
3.  Osiauder.— 4.  Consubstantiation.— 5.  Huber.        247—251 


CHAPTER  V. 

Switzerland.— 2.  Calvin.— 3.  France.— 4.  Scotland. — 5.  Eng- 
land.— ().  iMoravians  and  Waldenses. — 7.  Doctrinal  views 
of  the  Ixeformed.-  8.  Anabaptists,  or  Mennonites. — 9.  Men- 
no  Simonis. — 10.  Division  of  the  Mennonites. — 11.  So- 
cmians. 252—271 

CENTURY    XVII. 

Mis3io:i.s  of  the  Roman  church.  —  l.  China.  —  3.  Japan. — 
4.  Protestant  Missions. — 5.  Popish  Missions  in  Africa  and 
South  .America. — fi.  Protestant  Missions  in  North  America. 
—7.  Infidelity. —  8.  Learning.  — 9.  Popes.— 10.  Efforts  of 
Rome  to  reclaim  Protestants.— 11.  Abyssinia. — 12.  Monks. 
13.  Jesuits.— 14.  Dominicans  and  Jansenists. — 15.  Quielists. 
— 16.  Lutheran  church. — 17.  Syncretism. — 18.  Pietism. — 19 
Reformed  churches. — 20.  Arminian  system. — 21.  Synod  of 
Dort.  — 22.  England.  — 23.  Arminians.  — 24.  Quakers.— 25. 
English  Baptists. — 26.  Socinians-       -        -        -      272 — 307 

CENTURY   XVIII. 

Romish  Missions.— 2.  Protestant  Missions.— 3.  Infidelity. — 
4.  The  Bull  Unigenitus. — 5.  Jesuits  and  Jansenists. — 6.  Greek 
and  Lutheran  churches.— 7.  Moravians. — 8.  British  churches. 
—9,  Churches  in  the  United  States  — Presbyterian.  — 10. 
Episcopalian.— 11.  Methodist- 12.  Baptist.      -      307—317 

Appendix, •       •     318 — 334 


PKEFACE. 


The  idea  has  too  generally  prevailed,  that 
church  history  belongs  only  to  theologians, 
and  that  it  could  be  neither  important  nor 
interesting  to  the  common  reader.  Hence 
there  is  perhaps  no  branch  of  knowledge,  of 
which  the  mass  of  people  are  more  ignorant, 
than  the  history  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in 
the  world.  Most  of  our  church  histories  are 
too  volumiinous  for  the  generality  of  readers  : 
and  this  is  one  reason,  perhaps,  why  the  sub- 
ject has  been  so  much  neglected. 

Few  branches  of  study  would  be  found 
more  interesting  as  an  amusement ;  certainly 
none,  fuller  of  affecting  and  important  inci- 
dent. Even  the  lover  of  romantic  subjects 
would  find  many  events  recorded  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  of  quite  as  powerful  in- 
terest, as  any  of  the  dreams  of  fiction.  And 
how  much  better  would  it  be  for  our  youth, 
to  employ  their  leisure  hours,  and  their  sea- 
sons of  recreation,  in  storing  their  minds  with 
the  interesting  facts  developed  in  the  history 
of  the  Church  of  God  in  the  world,  than  in 

(vii) 


Vlll  TREFACE. 

« 

feeding  their  imaginations  with  ideai  fancies  ! 
How  mucii  more  profitable  and  rational  to 
be  employed  in  laying  up  knowledge  in  re- 
gard to  the  history  of  the  Church,  that  has  so 
direct  a  bearing  upon  the  happiness  of  man 
here,  and  his  hopes  and  prospects  hereafter, 
than  to  spend  so  much  time,  as  many  do,  in 
pursuing  the  mere  vagaries  of  a  wild  imagi- 
nation, that  have  no  real  existence  either  in 
the  present  or  the  future  world ;  and  that 
often  tend  only  to  corrupt  the  heart,  and  dis- 
qualify the  person,  as  well  for  living  in  this 
world,  as  for  dying  and  going  to  a  better  ! 

But  the  study  of  church  history  would  be 
found,  not  only  interesting  and  amusing,  but 
highly  profitable,  in  guarding  and  fortifying 
the  mind  against  those  errors  that  are  so  often 
introduced  under  the  pretence  of  being  some 
new  discovery ;  but  which,  on  examination, 
will  be  found  to  be  only  some  exploded  no- 
tion of  a  former  day,  brought  forward  with 
some  little  modification,  perhaps,  and  under 
a  new  name.  Scarcely  a  new  notion  is 
broached,  or  a  new  sect  springs  up,  but  they 
will  be  found  to  have  their  prototypes  in  some 
opinion,  or  sect  of  antiquity.  How  much  a 
correct  knowledge  of  the  past  history  of  the 
Church  would  be  calculated  to  guard  the 
minds  of  people  from  being  insnared  and  led 


PKEFACE.  IX 

away  by  such  errors,  it  is  easy  to  see.  And 
hence  we  discover  the  importance  of  this 
knowledge,  to  every  individual,  and  espe- 
cially to  every  member  of  the  Church. 

But  there  is  another  reason  why  the  study 
of  church  history  should  be  encouraged  and 
promoted  in  this  Protestant  country,  as  far 
as  practicable  :  and  that  is,  to  guard  against 
the  influence  and  proselytism  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Great  efibrts  are  making 
by  that  body  to  gain  an  extensive  influence, 
and  establish  a  permanent  footing  in  the 
United  States.  What  can  be  calculated  more 
effectually  to  guard  our  people  against  the 
insidious  approaches  and  pretensions  of  that 
apostate  communion,  than  to  have  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  past  history  of  the  Church, 
diffused  through  society  ?  It  is  there  we  learn 
what  have  been  the  spirit  and  practice  of  that 
Church,  ever  since  she  first  assumed  to  be  the 
only  catholic  and  infallible  church  on  earth  ; 
and  claimed  the  right,  as  the  vicar  of  Christ, 
and  the  representative  of  God  himself  upon 
earth,  to  exercise  spiritual  dominion  over 
every  nation.  There  we  learn  how  the  na- 
tions of  Europe  have  suffered  under  her  do- 
mineering influence,  and  how  she  has  ever 
waged  a  war  of  extermination  against  all 
that  are  not  of  her  communion,  whenever 


X  PREFACE. 

and  wherever  she  has  had  the  power  to  do  so 
And  in  this  she  is  the  same  that  she  ever 
was.  She  has  not  given  up  her  claim  to  in 
falUbiUty,  and  therefore  cannot  change.  The 
history  of  the  Church  developes  to  our  view 
the  whole  rise,  increase,  and  consummation 
of  this  mystery  of  iniquity.  Let  our  people 
be  well  acquainted  with  the  history  of  the 
Churcji,  and  we  shall  have  but  Uttle  to  fear 
from  Roman  Catholic  influence. 

Finally:  The  Church  is  the  kingdom. of 
God  in  this  world ;  and  would  any  one  be 
willingly  ignorant  of  the  history  of  this  king- 
dom ?  The  histories  of  the  kingdoms  of  this 
world  are  eagerly  sought  and  read,  although 
we  may  have  no  connexion  with  them  ;  shall 
we  not,  then,  seek  an  acquaintance  with  the 
kingdom  of  God  in  the  world,  with  which 
we  do  hold  a  most  important  connexion  ? 
The  history  of  the  Church,  as  an  interesting 
branch  of  general  knowledge,  ought  not  to 
be  neglected ;  but  when  it  is  considered  as 
that  Church  or  kingdom  of  God  in  the  world, 
in  which  each  individual  is  regarded  as  a 
subject,  or  a  rebel ;  and  in  which  each  one  is, 
finally,to  be  saved  or  lost ;  surely  its  history 
ought  to  be  eagerly  sought,  and  diligently 
studied. 

In  these  Sketches,  I  have  followed  the  ar- 


PREFACE.  XI 

rangement  of  Dr.  Mosheim  ;  from  whose  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  together  with  the  notes 
of  his  translator,  Dr.  Murdock,  most  of  the 
facts  and  materials  are  taken  :  so  that  this 
might  be  called  an  abridgment,  or  compend 
of  that  valuable  work.  When  I  have  quoted 
the  language  of  the  author,  I  have  generally 
employed  marks  of  quotation. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY 


CENTURY  1. 

Introductory  remarks.— 1.  State  of  the  world  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era. — 2.  Life  and  Death  of  Christ. — 3.  Ex- 
traordinary success  of  the  Gospel. — 4.  Form  and  order  of  the 
primitive  churches. — 5.  Errorists  in  the  primitive  churches, 
— 6.  Persecution. 

The  history  of  the  Christian  church  may  be  con- 
sidered as  commencing  with  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ,  its  divine  Head.  The  four  Evangelists 
narrate  the  interesting  and  solemnly  important 
transactions  and  events,  which  terminated  the 
old,  and  ushered  in  the  new  dispensation.  The 
church  of  the  new  and  spiritual  dispensation,  or 
the  Christian  church,  was  not  fully  organized 
under  the  New  Testament  form  until  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  when  the  promised  Spirit  was  "  poured 
out  upon  them,"  to  "  lead  them  into  all  truth." 
Then  the  apostles  were  "  endued  with  power  from 
on  high,"  and  were  completely  qualified  for  their 
work.  After  this  we  find  them  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  doubtless  directed  them 
in  all  their  public  official  acts,  and  in  their  writ- 
ings, or  at  least,  superintended  and  overruled  their 
conduct,  so  as  to  preserve  them  from  error.  And 
hence  the  Christian  church  is  called  the  "  minis- 
tration of  the  Spirit."  (2  Cor.  iii.  8.)  The  two 
2  13 


14  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

sacraments  of  the  Christian  church,  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  supper,  were  instituted  by  Ciirist  him- 
self; but  the  particular  officers  of  the  church,  its 
forms  of  worship,  and  modes  of  government  and 
discipline,  were  left  to  be  settled  by  the  apostles, 
as  occasion  required,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit. 

The  history  of  the  church  may  be  divided  into 
internal  and  extei-nal ;  the  former  relating  to  the 
purity  of  its  doctrines,  the  piety  of  its  members, 
the  nature  of  its  ceremonies,  its  modes  of  worship, 
its  discipline,  and  its  institutions ;  the  latter  re- 
specting its  extension,  outward  prosperity  and  ad- 
versity, and  the  external  circumstances  which  had 
influence  on  its  character.  In  regard  to  time,  the 
history  of  the  church  may  be  divided  into  four 
grand  periods;  1.  From  the  birth  of  Christ  to 
Constantine  the  Great,  the  first  Christian  emperor, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  2.  From 
Constantine  to  Charlemagne,  king  of  France,  in 
the  eighth  century,  by  whom  the  Papal  power  was 
greatly  promoted.  3.  From  Charlemagne  to  Lu- 
ther, in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by 
whom  the  Reformation  was  commenced.  4.  From 
Luther  to  the  present  time.  These  four  grand 
periods  may  also  be  subdivided  into  centuries. 

L  The  coming  of  Christ,  about  the  end  of  four 
thousand  years  from  the  creation,  is  said  to  be 
"  in  the  fulness  of  time ;"  by  which  we  may  un- 
derstand, that  in  the  providence  of  God,  there 
was  a  particular  preparation  and  fitness  in  the 
state  of  the  world  at  that  time  for  his  coming. 
At  the  birth  of  Christ,  the  Roman  Empire  was 
extended  over  almost  the  whole  of  the  then  known 
world ;  it  was  in  its  meridian  glory,  and  stood 
firm  upon  its  "  legs  of  iron."  (Dan.  ii.  33.)     The 


FIRST    CENTURY.  15 

arts  and  sciences  had  arrived  at  their  greatest 
height  in  the  heathen  world,  and  philosophy  had 
exerted  all  its  powers.  But  in  a  religious  point 
of  view,  the  whole  world  was  in  a  most  deplorable 
condition.  Among  the  Jews,  indeed,  the  worship 
of  the  true  God  was  maintained,  but  in  a  very- 
corrupt  state.  They  taught  for  doctrines  the 
commandments  of  men,  and  were  devoted  to  the 
mere  forms  and  externals  of  religion,  while  the 
spirit  and  morality  of  it  were  almost  wholly  ne- 
glected. They  were  divided  into  three  principal 
sects  among  themselves ;  the  Pharisees^  the  Sad- 
ducees,  and  the  Essenes.  The  Pharisees  were  the 
most  numerous  and  popular  sect,  who  prided  them- 
selves on  their  punctilious  observance  of  the  external 
forms  and  ceremonies  of  religion.  They  added 
many  things  to  the  law  of  Moses,  upon  the  author- 
ity of  their  doctors,  which  additions  were  called 
the  traditions  of  the  elders.  But  their  religion 
was  little  more  than  a  hypocritical  pretence.  The 
Sadducees  were  a  kind  of  sceptics  of  that  day. 
They  denied  the  existence  of  angels,  and  of  a 
future  state  ;  rejected  traditions,  and  received  the 
five  books  of  Moses  as  of  superior  authority  to  the 
other  Scriptures ;  and  appear  to  have  regarded 
religion  as  a  mere  matter  of  state  policy.  Many 
of  the  wealthy,  and  of  those  who  occupied  high 
stations,  belonged  to  this  sect.  The  Essenes 
were  a  kind  of  monastic  order,  who  retired  from 
society,  and  spent  their  time  in  solitude  and  devo- 
tion. We  read  also  of  the  Herodians ;  but  these 
it  is  probable,  were  not  so  properly  a  religious 
sect,  as  a  political  party.  They  were  the  favour- 
ers of  Herod  the  Great,  and  of  that  government 
which    he  exercised   under  the  authority  of  tho 


1(5  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

Romans.  The  state  of  the  Jewish  church  called 
loudly  for  a  reformation. 

In  the  heathen  world,  the  knowledge  of  the  true 
God  was  almost  wholly  lost.  The  most  wretched 
polytheism  and  idolatry  every  where  prevailed. 
The  discovery  was  completely  made,  and  the 
practical  truth  fully  developed,  that  "  the  world  by 
wisdom  knew  not  God."  It  seems  to  be  the  policy 
of  God's  government,  to  permit  man  to  try  his 
own  strength  first ;  and  to  afford  extraordinary 
aid,  when  every  other  means  has  failed.  Man's 
extremity  is  God's  opportunity.  Thus  it  is,  he 
exalts  his  own  almighty  power,  and  "  hides  pride 
from  man." 

A  general  expectation  existed,  not  only  among 
the  Jews,  but  throughout  the  East,  founded  upon 
the  predictions  of  the  Jewish  prophets,  that  a  very 
extraordinary  personage  should  arise  in  Judea, 
about  this  time,  who  should  establish  a  kingdom 
over  the  whole  world.  Flence  the  alarm  of  Herod, 
when  it  was  said  that  Christ  was  "  born  king  of 
the  Jews ;"  and  fhe  consequent  murder  of  the 
children  of  Bethlehem.  Tacitus,  Suetonius,  and 
Josephus,  speak  very  expressly  of  this  expectation 
as  being  very  general  throughout  the  East ;  and 
as  being  founded  on  predictions  contained  in  the 
sacred  books.  Virgil  plainly  alludes  to  this  ex- 
pectation ;  and  uses  almost  the  very  language  of 
some  of  the  prophets  respecting  the  Messiah,  in 
his  fourth  Eclogue,  inscribed  PoUio.  The  general 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  language  that  then 
existed  throughout  the  East,  in  consequence  of 
the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great;  and  the 
previous  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  into 
that  language  by  the  direction  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,    were  no  doubt  designed,  in  the  provi- 


FIRST    CENTURY.  17 

dence  of  God  to  prepare  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and 
to  facilitate  the  spread  of  the  gospel.  That  state 
of  general  peace  which  existed  throughout  the 
Roman  empire  under  the  prosperous  reign  of 
Augustus  Csesar,  was  peculiarly  fitted  for  the 
advent  of  the  Prince  of  Peace. 

II.  In  the  fulness  of  time,  when  God  in  his  pro- 
vidence had  thus  prepared  the  world  for  it,  Christ 
made  his  appearance.  His  birth  was  indeed  mi- 
raculous, and  attended  with  extraordinary  circum- 
stances ;  but  his  condition,  according  to  ancient 
prophecies,  was  mean  and  contemptible.  "  He 
hath  no  form  nor  comeliness;  and  when  we  shall 
see  him,  there  is  no  beauty  that  we  should  desire 
him."  Until  he  entered  upon  his  pubHc  ministry, 
at  about  the  age  of  thirty,  he  seems  to  have  resided 
with  his  parents  in  poverty  and  obscurity,  and  to 
have  excited  little  or  no  public  attention.  He  was 
preceded  by  John  the  Baptist,  whose  ministry 
seems  to  have  formed  a  connecting  link  between 
the  Jewish  and  Christian  dispensations.  It  par- 
ticipated with  both,  but  belonged  properly  to 
neither.  By  him  Christ  was  baptized  in  Jordan, 
and  thus  was  consecrated  to  his  priestly  office ; 
and  at  the  same  time,  he  received  the  unction  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  who  descended  upon  him  "  in 
bodily  form,  like  a  dove."  His  commission  and 
authority  as  a  divine  teacher,  were  announced  by 
a  miraculous  voice  from  heaven,  saying,  "  This 
is  my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased." 
During  his  public  ministry,  whicn  lasted  about 
three  years,  he  manifested  the  most  entire  devo- 
tion to  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  man. 
He  lived  the  most  blameless  and  holy  life,  taught 
the  most  pure  and  heavenly  doctrines,  and  con- 
firmed his  divine  character  by  a  succession  of  the 
2* 


18  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

most  extraordinary  miracles.  But  the  Jews,  who 
expected  a  temporal  deliverer  in  their  Messiah, 
were  offended  in  him,  and  by  their  influence  with 
Pilate  the  Roman  governor,  procured  his  cruci- 
fixion.  "  He  was  numbered  with  the  transgres- 
sors ;  for  the  transgression  of  my  people  was  he 
stricken."  But  on  the  third  day,  according  to  his 
own  prediction,  he  rose  again  from  the  dead  ;  and 
after  meeting  with  his  disciples,  and  conversing 
with  them  on  various  occasions,  for  the  space  of 
forty  days,  he  ascended  up  to  heaven,  and  sat 
down  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Majesty  on  high. 

III.  Only  a  few  days  after  his  ascension,  accor- 
ding to  his  promise,  the  Spirit  was  poured  out 
on  the  disciples,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and 
three  thousand  converts  were  added  to  the  church. 
From  this  time  the  word  of  the  Lord  began  to  take 
root  and  spread.  At  this  feast  of  Pentecost  there 
were  great  numbers  of  Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes 
present,  from  almost  all  the  surrounding  countries  ; 
and  many  of  them  were  probably  converted  on 
that  occasion ;  and  when  they  returned  home, 
carried  the  gospel  with  them.  These  would  be 
pioneers  to  the  apostles  in  their  future  travels 
throuoh  those  countries,  and  greatly  assist  them  in 
establishing  churches.  Paul  was  raised  up  by  the 
providence  of  God,  and  called  in  a  most  extraor- 
dinary manner,  from  being  a  most  virulent  perse- 
cutor, to  be  the  great  apostle  of  the  gentiles.  By 
his  abundant  labours,  assisted  by  various  compan 
ions,  the  gospel  was  spread  in  a  short  time, 
throughout  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Archipelago  ;  and  churches  established  in 
all  their  principal  cities. 

To  what  extent  the  gospel  was  preached  by  the 
apostles  themselves,  except  so  far  as  indicated  in 


FIRST    CENTURY.  19 

the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles,  is  involved 
in  great  obscurity.  From  the  most  ancient  tra- 
ditions, which  have  reached  us,  (more  to  be  relied 
on  than  those  of  later  date,  and  yet  not  greatly  to 
be  trusted,)  it  appears  more  or  less  probable,  that 
Peter  extended  his  labours  beyond  Judea  and 
Syria,  to  Babylon,  and  to  parts  of  Asia  Minor; 
that  Matthew,  Jude,  and  Thomas,  penetrated  still 
farther  eastward,  to  Persia,  Parthia,  and  India ; 
that  Andrew  and  Philip  spent  some  portion  of 
their  time,  the  latter  in  Phrygia,  and  the  former 
along  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea  ;  that  James,  the 
son  of  Alpheus,  remained  at  Jerusalem,  till  his 
martyrdom,  shortly  before  the  destruction  of  that 
city ;  and  that  Bartholomew  went  to  Arabia,  and 
John  to  Ephesus,  after  the  death  of  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  where  he  lived  to  an  advanced 
age.  But  although  we  are  left  to  glean  only  a 
few  uncertain  and  unsatisfactory  statements  re- 
specting the  apostles,  beyond  what  the  New  Tes- 
tament  records  of  them  ;  it  is,  nevertheless,  certain, 
that  in  the  first  century,  and  even  during  the 
lives  of  the  apostles  themselves,  Christianity  ob- 
tained a  considerable  prevalence  throughout  a 
great  part  of  the  then  known  world. 

The  spread  of  the  Christian  religion  in  the  first 
century,  is  truly  wonderful ;  and  can  be  accounted 
for  only  on  the  supposition,  that  it  was  the  Lord's 
doing.  "  The  cause  must  have  been  divine  that 
enabled  men,  destitute  of  all  human  aid,  poor, 
friendless,  neither  eloquent  nor  learned,  fishermen, 
publicans,  and  moreover  Jews,  that  is,  persons 
odious  to  all  other  nations,  in  so  short  a  time,  to 
persuade  so  great  a  part  of  mankind  to  abandon 
the  religions  of  their  fathers,  and  to  embrace  a 
new  religion,  which  is  opposed  to  the  natural  dis- 


20  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

positions  of  men."  In  the  hands  of  these  weak, 
but  heaven-commissioned,  and  heaven-directed 
instruments,  the  gospel  was  the  "  power  of  God, 
and  the  wisdom  of  God  unto  salvation."  They 
were  no  doubt  much  aided  m  exciting  an  interest, 
and  making  an  impression  upon  the  minds  of  men, 
and  in  stopping  the  mouths  of  gainsayers,  by  the 
miraculous  powers  with  which  they  were  endowed. 
Their  general  want  of  human  learning  was  no 
doubt  more  than  compensated  by  the  extraordi- 
nary influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  were 
afforded  to  them,  and  the  gift  of  tongues  by  which 
they  were  enabled  to  speak  languages  which  they 
had  never  learned.  Their  humble,  devoted,  blame- 
less lives  too,  would  gain  them  credit  and  influ- 
ence. But  nothing  will  account  for  the  extraor- 
dinary spread  of  the  gospel,  opposing  as  it  did,  the 
passions,  prejudices,  and  worldly  interests  of  all 
men,  but  the  supposition  that  it  was  accompanied 
by  the  mighty  power  of  God.  It  was  "  mighty 
through,  Godj  to  the  pulling  down  of  strongs 
holds." 

IV.  The  organization  of  the  church  by  the 
apostles,  and  during  the  first  century,  was  most 
simple ;  and  seems  to  have  been  modelled  after 
the  form  of  the  Jewish  Synagogue.  The  officers 
were, 

1.  Elders  or  Bishops,  uho  laboured  in  word 
and  doctrine.  These  were  their  public  teachers 
— the  pastors  of  churches,  who  led  in  their  wor- 
shipping assemblies,  and  publicly  instructed  the 
people.  Of  these  there  were  frequently  several  in 
the  same  church,  especially  the  large  churches 
collected  in  the  principal  cities.  They  seem  to 
have  stood  upon  a  perfect  parity  or  equality  of 
office ;  except  that,  for  the  sake  of  order,  one  was 


FIRST    CENTURY.  21 

chosen  president  or  moderator.  This  president 
was  sometimes  called  the  angel  of  the  churchy  as 
a  similar  officer  in  the  Jewish  Synagogue  was 
called  angel  or  messenger.  To  this  angel  of  each 
of  the  seven  Asiatic  churches,  are  the  several 
epistles  in  the  Revelation  addressed.  These 
bishops  or  pastors  of  churches  were  chosen  by  the 
people,  on  account  of  their  wisdom,  piety,  and 
aptness  to  teach ;  and  were  regularly  set  apart  to 
their  office  by  the  "  laying  on  of  the  hands  of 
the  Presbytery."  We  may  suppose  that  they 
were  generally  supported  by  the  people  among 
whom  they  laboured  ;  according  to  the  particular 
direction  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  on  this 
head.* 

2.  Elders  who  ruled — who  assisted  in  the  gov- 
ernment  and  discipline  of  the  church  ;  but  who  did 
not  engage  in  the  business  of  public  instruction. 
There  was  a  similar  class  of  officers  in  the  Jewish 
Synagogues,  called  Rulers  of  the  Sy7iagogue, 
These  lay  elders  might  be  properly  regarded  as 
the  representatives  of  the  people,  and  the  guardians 
of  their  rights.  Their  business  was  to  inspect  the 
conduct  of  the  members,  to  keep  order  in  their 
public  assemblies,  and  to  assist  the  bishops  in  the 
proper  administration  of  the  ordinances  and  disci- 
pline of  the  church.+ 

3.  Deacons,  who  were  the  public  servants  of 
the  church,  managed  its  secular  concerns, 
and  had  particular  oversight  of  the  funds,  and  the 
charities  of  the  church. 

The  forms  of  worship  in  the  first  century,  were 

*0n  the  subject  of  this  paragraph,  consult  Dr.  Miller  on  the 
Christian  Ministry. 

T  See  on  this  subject,  Dr.  Miller's  Essay  on  the  Nature,  &c 
of  Ruling  Elders. 


22  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORT. 

plain  and  simple.  Their  public  assemblies  were 
held  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  commonly  in 
private  houses,  or  in  some  building  appropriated 
to  that  purpose.  There  is  no  account  of  churches 
built  and  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  God,  sooner 
than  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
These  meetings,  in  time  of  persecution,  were  often 
after  night,  or  before  day  in  the  morning.  Here 
prayers  were  offered,  the  Scriptures  read,  short 
addresses  made  to  the  people  by  their  public  teach- 
ers, the  Lord's  supper  was  celebrated,  accompanied 
with  the  singing  of  hymns ;  and  the  whole  was 
closed  with  free  will  offerings  of  money  or  provi- 
sions to  their  common  stock,  and  the  feast  of  cha- 
rity. This  feast  of  charity  seems  to  have  been 
intended  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor.  They  who 
were  wealthy,  and  could  afford  it,  brought  some- 
thing with  them,  on  which  they  made  a  com- 
mon meal ;  the  poor,  and  strangers,  who  could 
bring  nothing,  being  allowed  a  full  share.  Con- 
verts seem  at  first,  to  have  been  admitted  to  the 
communion  of  the  church  upon  a  simple  profes- 
sion of  their  faith. 

V.  Even  in  this  first  century,  several  errors 
made  their  appearance,  and  heresies  began  to 
spring  up.  A  difference  of  opinion  very  early 
arose  between  the  Jewish  and  gentile  converts, 
about  the  necessity  of  an  observance  of  the  rules 
of  the  Mosaic  law.  This  subject  called  together 
the  first  council  or  synod,  which  was  held  by  the 
apostles  at  Jerusalem,  and  decided  upon  this 
question,  as  we  read  in  the  15th  chapter  of  Acts. 

When  Jews  were  converted  to  Christianity,  it 
waS;  natural  that  they  should  still  retain  some 
leaning  towards  the  opinions  they  had  formerly 
entertained,  and  a  pa?'tiality  for  their  old  ceremo- 


FIRST    CENTURY.  23 

nies  and  institutions.  These  prejudices,  which 
are  natural  to  the  human  mind,  would  not  fail  to 
give  to  Christianity  a  peculiar  model  among  Jew- 
ish converts,  suitable  to  their  particular  views  and 
feelings.  A  spice  of  the  old  leaven  still  retained, 
would  leaven  the  new  lump.  This  thing  we  find 
the  apostles  often  labouring  to  correct ;  and  the 
whole  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  seems  mainly  de- 
signed for  this  purpose.  In  like  manner,  when 
heathen  converts  were  received  into  the  church, 
it  was  natural  they  should  bring  with  them  some 
taint  of  their  old  philosophy,  and  former  super- 
stitions ;  and  some  fondness  for  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  their  idolatrous  worship.  Long 
established  opinions  are  seldom  entirely  eradica- 
ted, and  old  habits,  with  which  we  have  been 
brought  up,  are  not  likely  to  be  totally  renounced. 
Sometimes  the  teachers  of  religion  were  too  indul- 
gent to  those  prejudices  ;  and  in  order  that  the 
gospel  might  be  the  less  oifensive,  tolerated  in 
their  new  converts,  opinions  and  practices  little 
consistent  with  it.  An  indulgent  feeling  of  this 
sort  was  natural,  and  duly  regulated,  was  very 
proper.  Thus  Paul  was  made  "  all  things  to  all 
men,  that  by  all  means  he  might  save  some." 
But  the  principle  was  often  carried  too  far.  From 
these  sources,  therefore,  we  shall  find,  springing  up 
many  of  the  errors  and  heresies  that  deformed 
the  beauty,  and  marred  the  peace  of  the  church, 
during  the  first  three  or  four  centuries.  Some  of 
them  were  Jewish,  but  most  of  them  of  heathen 
origin ;  and  all  proceeded  from  the  same  source, 
a  fondness  for  old  opinions  and  practices,  and  a 
disposition  to  yield  as  far  as  possible  to  these 
Jewish  and  heathen  prejudices,  and  thus  in  a  good 
degree,  to  remove  the  offence  of  the  cross.     In- 


24  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

deed  we  shall  find,  that  when  Christianity  became 
the  established  religion  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and 
took  the  place  of  paganism,  it  assumed,  in  a  great 
degree,  the  forms  and  rites  of  paganism,  and  par- 
ticipated in  no  small  measure  of  its  spirit  also. 
Christianity  as  it  existed  in  the  dark  ages,  might 
be  termed,  without  much  impropriety  of  language, 
baptized  paganism. 

"  At  the  head  of  all  the  sects,"  says  Dr.  Mos- 
heim,  "  which  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  church, 
stand  the  Gnostics.  Under  this  appellation,  are 
included  all  those  in  the  first  ages  of  the  church, 
who  modified  the  religion  of  Christ,  by  joining 
with  it  the  Oriental  philosophy,  in  regard  to  the 
source  of  evil,  and  the  origin  of  this  material  uni- 
verse." They  were  divided  into  a  number  of 
particular  sects  or  parties,  but  seem  to  have  held 
the  following  errors  in  common.  They  taught 
that  Jesus  Christ  is  inferior  to  the  Father ;  that 
he  did  not  possess  a  real  body,  and  consequently 
did  not  really  suffer  ;  that  evil  dwells  essentially 
in  matter ;  and  therefore  they  denied  the  future 
resurrection  of  the  body,  and  enjoined  severe  bod- 
ily penances  and  mortifications,  and  held  other 
notions  of  like  character,  derived  from  that  false 
philosophy  which  they  professed,  and  upon  which 
they  attempted  to  ingraft  Christianity. 

The  followers  of  Simon  Magus  are  reckoned 
by  some,  among  the  Gnostic  sects,  which,  in  this 
century,  corrupted  the  gospel.  But,  according  to 
the  best  evidence  we  possess,  Simon,  after  the 
memorable  rebuke  given  him  by  the  apostle, 
(Acts  viii.  20 — 23,)  became,  not  a  corrupter,  but 
a  persevering  enemy  of  Christianity. 

The  Nicolaitans  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  a  branch  of  the  Gnostics,  although  this 


FIRST    CENTURY.  25 

^  uncertain.  They  rather  appear  to  have  been  a 
class  of  Antinomians,  who  turned  the  grace  of  God 
into  iasciviousness.  The  Docetae,  a  Gnostic  sect, 
received  their  name  from  their  distinguishing 
tenet,  that  Jesus  had  not  a  real,  but  only  an  ap- 
parent human  body,  and  that  consequently  his 
sufferings  on  the  cross  were  only  in  appearance. 
Cerinthus,  who  was  cotemporary  with  John,  the 
apostle,  taught,  on  the  contrary,  that  Jesus  had  a 
real  body,  and  indeed  was  merely  a  man,  the  son 
of  Joseph  and  Mary  ;  but  that,  at  his  baptism,  the 
Christ,  a  being  of  superior  nature,  descended  on . 
him  in  the  form  of  a  dove,  remained  in  him  during 
his  public  ministry,  and  leaving  him,  when  he  was 
apprehended  by  the  Jews,  ascended  again  to  hea- 
ven ;  so  that  not  Christ,  but  Jesus  died.  It  is  related 
by  Irenoeus,  on  the  authority  of  Polycarp,  wha 
was  acquainted  with  John,  that  this  aged  apostle 
once  going  into  a  bath  at  Ephesus,  discovered 
Cerinthus  there  ;  upon  which,  leaping  out  of  the 
bath,  he  hastened  away,  saying,  he  was  afraid 
lest  the  building  should  fall  on  him,  and  crush 
him  along  with  the  heretic. 

The  Nazarenes  and  Ebionites  were  Judaizing 
Christians,  that  sprung  up  in  the  first  century,  but 
were  not  organized  into  distinct  sects,  until  the 
second  century.  The  Nazarenes  differed  little 
from  the  orthodox,  except  that  they  adhered  to 
the  rites  of  the  Mosaic  law.  The  Ebionites  denied 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  rejected  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures, except  the  five  books  of  Moses,  and  all  of 
Paul's  epistles. 

The  writers  of  the  first  century  are  the  apostles 

and  apostolic  fathers.   At  what  time,  and  by  whom. 

the  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  collected 

into  one  volume,  is  uncertain  ;  but  it  is  certain 

3 


20  ECCLKSIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

that  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  the 
most  of  them  were  read  in  every  Christian  church, 
and  regarded  as  the  divine  rule  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice. Tlie  apostolic  fathers  are,  Clement,  bishop 
of  Rome,  and  author  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Corin- 
thians ;  Ignatius,  disciple  and  companion  of  the 
apostles,  who  suffered  martyrdom  under  Trajan, 
being  exposed  to  wild  beasts  in  the  theatre  at 
Rome  ;  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  at  an  extreme  age,  in  the  middle  of 
the  second  century.  Several  works  ascribed  to 
these  fathers,  are  known  to  be  spurious  ;  others 
are  doubtful ;  and  those,  which  are  generally  re- 
ceived as  genuine,  are  not  free  from  interpola- 
tions. 

VI.  From  the  very  beginning,  the  church  has 
been  called  to  suffer  persecution.  This  was  first 
from  the  Jews,  and  about  the  time  that  Stephen 
was  stoned  to  death,  persecution  seems  to  have 
raged  very  high ;  so  that  the  disciples  were  com- 
pelled to  make  their  escape,  and  to  flee  into  distant 
countries.  After  this,  we  are  told  (Acts  xii.  1.) 
that  "  Herod  the  king  stretched  forth  his  hand  to 
vex  certain  of  the  church."  James  he  killed  with 
the  sword,  and  Peter  he  imprisoned.  And  this  he 
did  to  gain  favour  with  the  Jews.  But  the  Jewish 
power  was  then  limited,  and  soon  after  destroyed, 
by  the  utter  destruction  of  their  city  and  temple 
by  Titus,  and  the  final  dispersion  of  their  nation. 
Nero  was  the  first  Roman  emperor  that  persecu- 
ted the  Christians;  and  his  cruelty  was  extreme. 
He  falsely  accused  them  of  setting  fire  to  the  city 
of  Rome,  of  which  crime  he  was  guilty  himself. 
Multitudes  were  put  to  the  most  excruciating  death 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  streets  of  the  city,  and 
his  pleasure  gardens,  were  illuminated  at  night  by 


SECOND    CENTURY.  27 

the  burning  of  those  whom  he  caused  to  be  sewed 
up  alive  in  garments  covered  over  with  pitch. 
This  persecution  commenced  about  A.  D.  64,  and 
raged  until  the  death  of  Nero,  about  four  years. 
Paul  and  Peter  are  said  to  have  suffered  martyr 
dom  at  Rome  during  this  persecution ;  the  one  by 
fiecapitation,  the  other  by  crucifixion,  with  his 
head  downwards.  This  manner  he  chose,  as 
being  less  honourable  than  that  in  which  his  Lord 
had  been  crucified.  The  fury  of  this  persecution 
subsided  after  the  death  of  Nero,  until  it  was  re- 
newed, near  the  end  of  the  century  by  Domitian ; 
a  character  little  inferior  to  Nero  for  baseness  and 
cruelty.  Under  this  persecution  the  apostle  John 
was  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  where  he 
wrote  the  Revelation.  It  has  been  said  upon  the 
authority  of  Tertullian,  that  he  had  been  previously 
thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  and  came  out 
unhurt.     But  this  is  doubted. 


CENTURY  II. 

1.  Spread  of  the  Gospel. — 2.  Persecution  under  the  Roman 
Emperors. — 3.  Rise  of  Monachism. — 4.  Origin  of  the  dis- 
tinction between  Bishop  and  Presbyter.— 5.  Fathers.— 6.  Rites 
and  Ceremonies. — 7.  Heretics. 

I.  The  obscure  lights  of  the  early  history  of  the 
church  do  not  enable  us  to  decide  with  certainty, 
what  nations  received  Christianity  during  the 
second  century ;  but  there  are  unexceptionable 
witnesses  who  inform  us,  that  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century,  in  nearly  all  the  East,  and  among 


28 


ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 


the  Germans,  the  Spaniards,  the  Celts,  the  Britons, 
and  other  nations,  Christ  was  worshipped  as  God. 
About  the  middle  of  this  century,  Pothinus,  Iren- 
seus,  and  others  went  from  Asia  into  Gaul,  and 
established  churches  in  Lyons  and  Vienne.  Po- 
thinus was  the  first  bishop  of  Lyons,  and  Irenaeus 
succeeded  him  after  his  death,  A.  D.  177.  About 
this  time  Lucius,  a  king  or  nobleman  of  England, 
sent  to  Rome,  or  to  Gaul,  as  some  think  more 
probable,  for  a  supply  of  religious  instructors. 
The  rapid  propagation  of  Christianity  is  ascribed 
by  the  writers  of  the  second  century,  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  efficient  will  of  God,  the  energy 
of  divine  truth,  and  the  miracles  wrought  by 
Christians.  The  Scriptures  were  translated  into 
various  languages  at  an  early  period.  The  Italic, 
the  Syriac,  the  Egyptian,  and  Ethiopic,  are  the 
most  noted  versions  of  this  age ;  but  at  what  time 
they  were  severally  made,  is  not  ascertained.  It 
seems  to  be  established  on  undoubted  authority, 
that  the  power  of  working  miracles  continued  to 
some  extent  in  the  church  during  this  century. 

II.  The  Roman  Emperors  of  this  century  were 
Trajan,  Adrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  Marcus  Aurelius, 
Verus,  Commodus,  and  Severus.  The  first  four 
of  these  were  remarkable  for  their  gentle  and 
equitable  character ;  yet  the  Christians  suffered 
not  a  little  under  each  of  them.  The  celebrated 
letter  of  Pliny,  governor  of  Bithynia,  to  Trajan, 
asking  instruction  how  he  should  proceed  in  re- 
gard to  the  Christians,  w^ho  had  become  very  nu- 
merous, has  been  often  published.  Trajan  directs 
that  they  should  not  be  sought  after  :  but  when 
regularly  accused  and  convicted,  if  they  refused 
to  return  to  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  they 
should  be  put  to  death      The  Pagan  priests  who 


SECOND    CENTURY.  29 

saw  their  temples  deserted,  and  their  idolatrous 
worship  falling  into  disrepute,  stirred  up  the  popu- 
lace at  the  seasons  of  the  public  shows  and  games, 
to  demand  of  the  governors  of  provinces,  the  de- 
struction of  the  Christians  ;  and  these  demands 
could  not  be  disregarded  without  danger  of  insur- 
rection. To  prevent  this  lawless  procedure, 
Adrian  passed  an  edict  that  they  should  not  be 
put  to  death,  unless  accused  in  due  form,  and  con- 
victed of  some  crime.  In  order  to  bring  their 
case  under  that  law,  they  were  often  accused  of  the 
most  enonnous  crimes; — such  as  impiety  or  athe- 
ism, because  they  refused  to  worship  the  gods  of  the 
heathen, — incest,  infanticide,  and  even  the  eating 
of  the  flesh  of  murdered  children.  When  Asia 
Minor  was  visited  with  earthquakes,  in  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius,  the  Christians  were  accused  as 
the  cause  of  bringing  the  wrath  of  the  gods  upon 
the  land  ,*  and  under  this  charge,  were  treat- 
ed by  the  populace  with  great  violence  and  out- 
rage. Under  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  little  after  the 
middle  of  this  century,  a  severe  persecution  raged 
against  the  Christians,  in  which  Polycarp  and 
Justin  Martyr  suffered  death.  The  charges 
brought  against  Christians  called  forth  a  nuniber 
of  afjologies — among  which  are  those  of  Justin 
Martyr,  Athenagoras,  Tatian,  and  Tertullian.  By 
these,  the  base  charges  brought  against  the  Chris- 
tians by  their  enemies  were  refuted.  The  letter 
of  Pliny  above  referred  to,  bears  honorable  testi- 
mony to  their  peaceable  inoffensive  character. 

III.  The  doctrines  of  the  church  in  the  second 
century,  were  summed  up  in  a  few  simple  articles, 
expressed  in  what  has  since  been  called  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed,  This  creed  was  not  composed  by  the 
apostles  ;  but  it  was  in  very  early  use.     Its  com- 


30  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

mon  form,  in  general  use  in  the  fourth  century, 
was  as  follows  :  "  I  believe  in  God  the  Father, 
almighty  ;  and  in  Christ  Jesus,  his  only  begotten 
Son,  our  Lord,  who  was  born  of  the  virgin  Mary 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  crucified  under  Pontius  Pilate, 
buried,  rose  on  the  third  day  from  the  dead,  as- 
cended to  heaven,  sits  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
Father,  whence  he  will  come  to  judge  the  living 
and  the  dead  ; — and  in  the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  holy 
church ;  the  remission  of  sins  ;  the  resurrection 
of  the  body."  The  Scriptures  were  regarded  as 
the  standard  of  faith  and  practice,  and  were  con- 
stantly read  and  appealed  to  ;  and  as  f*  as  prac- 
ticable, were  put  into  the  hands  of  the  people. 
There  were  some  in  this  century  who  undertook 
to  write  comments  on  the  Scriptures ;  but  their 
writings  have  not  come  down  to  our  times.  In 
this  century,  the  monastic  life  began  to  be  in  some 
repute  ;  and  they  who  secluded  themselves  from 
societ)^  and  spent  their  days  in  prayer,  fasting, 
&c.  were  regarded  as  having  attained  a  higher 
degree  of  sanctity.  These  notions  grew  out  of  the 
philosophy  of  the  day,  which  taught  that  they 
who  would  be  perfect,  must  mortify  their  bodily 
appetites,  retire  from  the  world,  and  spend  their 
time  in  contemplation.  In  conformity  with  that 
same  philosophy,  which  taught  two  codes  of  mor- 
ality, one  for  the  higher,  the  other  for  the  lower 
class  of  society,  they  began  to  make  a  like  dis- 
tinction among  the  precepts  of  Christ,  enjoining 
stricter  rules  of  life  upon  those  who  aspired  to 
be  saints,  than  upon  the  common  people.  They 
that  would  attain  to  an  eminent  degree  of  holiness 
and  communion  with  God  were  directed  to  ema- 
ciate their  bodies  by  watching,  toil  and  hunger, 
to  abstain  from  wine,  flesh,  matrimony  and  world- 


SECOND    CENTURY.  31 

ly  business  ;  to  spend  much  time  in  retirement, 
engaged  in  prayer,  contemplation,  and  other  reli- 
gious duties.  Such  were  called  ascetics^  and  re- 
garded as  saints  of  a  superior  order.  They  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  peculiarity  of  dress,  but 
did  not  during  this  century,  seclude  themselves 
entirely  from  society,  and  form  regular  associa- 
tions, as  they  afterwards  did.  Pious  frauds  began 
to  be  practised  at  an  early  period.  Both  the  Pla- 
tonic and  Pythagorean  philosophy  taught  that  it 
was -right  and  commendable  to  lie,  and  to  deceive, 
in  order  to  promote  a  good  end.  The  Jews  living 
in  Egypt  had  adopted  this  sentiment  before  the 
Christian  era.  From  these  sources  it  spread 
among  Christians,  and  was  the  source  of  much 
evil  in  after  ages.  Books  were  forged  under  false 
names,  in  order  to  give  them  more  interest  and 
authority.  Fictions  were  published  for  the  truth, 
and  books  were  altered  and  interpolated  with  the 
like  good  motive.  But  a  good  end  can  never  jus- 
tify sinful  means. 

IV.  In  the  beginning  of  this  and  in  the  prece- 
ding century,  the  churches  were  all  bound  to- 
gether by  a  common  faith  and  government. 
Hence,  when  a  question  arose  about  the  necessity 
of  Jewish  observances,  the  question  was  not  set- 
tled by  the  church  of  Antioch,  where  it  arose,  or 
by  each  congregation  for  itself;  but  the  apostles 
and  elders  came  together,  as  a  synod,  at  Jerusa- 
lem, to  consider  and  determine  the  matters,  and 
sent  down  their  decrees  to  all  the  churches  to 
be  observed.  The  bishops  were  now,  as  then, 
parochial,  presiding  over  single  churches.  When 
there  were  several  in  the  same  church,  as  seems 
to  have  been  commonly  the  case  in  the  large 
towns,  for  the  sake  of  order   and   convenience. 


32  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY: 

and  in  conformity  with  the  plan  of  the  Jewish 
synagogue,  one  was  chosen  to  preside,  whose  busi- 
ness it  was,  by  common  consent,  to  exercise  a 
general  supervision  and  control  over  the  whole 
church.  He,  of  course,  would  be  chosen  to  this 
office  who  was  superior  in  age,  gravity,  talents, 
&c.  By  degrees  these  senior  presiding  presby- 
ters, began  to  assume  the  exclusive  title  and  pre- 
rogative of  bishops,  and  to  claim  for  themselves  a 
superior  grade  of  office  and  authority,  especially  in 
the  more  prominent  cities.  Here  we  find  the  origin 
of  that  distinction  that  regards  bishops  as  a  superi- 
or order  of  clergy,  which  was  afterwards  establish- 
ed, and  is  still  maintained  in  several  branches  of 
the  Christian  church,  but  which  has  no  foundation 
in  the  New  Testament,  where  bishop  and  presby- 
ter are  convertible  terms,  nor  in  the  apostolic  age, 
when  there  appears  to  have  been  a  perfect  parity 
of  the  gospel  ministry. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century,  "  it  be- 
came customary,"  says  Dr.  Mosheim,  "  for  all 
the  Christian  churches  within  the  same  province, 
to  unite  and  form  a  sort  of  large  society  or  com- 
monwealth ;  and  in  the  manner  of  confederate  re- 
publics, to  hold  their  conventions  at  stated  times, 
and  there  deliberate  for  the  common  advantage  of 
the  whole  confederation.  These  conventions  of 
delegates  from  the  several  churches,  assembled 
for  deliberation,  were  called  by  the  Greeks,  Sy- 
nods^ and  by  the  Latins,  Councils  ;  and  the  laws 
agreed  upon  in  them,  were  called  canons,  that  is 
rules.  These  councils  gradually  subverted  the 
perfect  equality  and  parity  of  all  bishops  which 
existed  in  the  early  times.  For  it  was  neces- 
sary that  one  of  the  confederate  bishops  of  a 
province  should  be  entrusted  with  some  authority 


SECOND    CENTUKY.  33 

and  power  in  those  conventions,  over  the  others. 
And  hence  originated  the  prerogatives  of  Metro- 
politans, so  called  because  they  occupied  the 
chief  city  or  metropolis,  of  that  region  over 
which  each  one  presided.  And,  lastly,  when  the 
custom  of  holding  these  councils  had  extended 
over  the  Christian  world,  and  the  universal  church 
had  acquired  the  form  of  a  vast  republic,  compos- 
ed of  many  lesser  ones,  certain  head  men  were 
to  be  placed  over  it  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
as  central  points  in  their  respective  countries. 
Hence  came  the  Patriarchs ;  and  ultimately,  a 
Prince  of  Patriarchs,  the  Roman  Pontiff." 

This  distinction  amongst  the  ministers  of  the 
gospel  was  also  promoted  and  confirmed  by  repre- 
senting them  to  be  the  successors  of  the  Jewish 
priests,  and  that  the  church  should  assume  the 
form  of  the  temple  service  and  organization,  in- 
stead of  those  of  the  synagogue,  according  to 
which  it  had  been  first  modelled.  This  began  to 
be  done  soon  after  the  reign  of  Adrian,  upon  the 
second  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  when  the  Jews 
lost  all  hope  of  seeing  their  commonwealth  restor- 
ed. This  idea  may  have  been  very  innocently 
suggested  at  first,  as  being  very  plausible  ;  but  it 
was  afterwards  abused  to  the  introduction  and 
sanction  of  many  very  pernicious  errors.  Bi- 
shops were  now  made  to  correspond  with  the 
chief  priests ;  pre.sbyters  with  the  priests ;  and 
deacons  with  the  Levites,  among  the  Jews.  Hence 
the  term  priests  applied  to  the  ministers  of  the 
gospel,  altars  in  churches,  sacrifices  offered,  as 
that  of  the  mass  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
tithes,  first  fruits,  clerical  garments,  &c. 

V.  Among  the  fathers  of  this  century  who  ren- 
dered themselves  famous  by  their  writings,  was 


34  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

Justin  Martyr,  so  called  because  he  suffered  mar 
tyrdom.  lie  was  a  converted  philosopher,  learn- 
ed and  pious.  His  writings  are  numerous  and 
erudite,  but  his  style  harsh,  and  his  opinions  some- 
times unsound.  Irenaeus,  bishop  of  Lyons  in 
France.  His  writings  that  remain  are  five  books 
against  heretics.  Athenagoras,  an  able  and  elo- 
quent writer.  His  Apology  for  the  Christians, 
and  his  treatise  on  the  resurrection,  display  both 
learning  and  genius.  Theophilus,  bishop  of  An- 
tioch,  has  left  three  books  in  defence  of  Christi- 
anity. Clemens  Alexandrinus,  a  man  of  great 
reading,  but  his  love  of  philosophy  led  him  into 
great  errors.  Tertullian,  a  native  of  Carthage, 
and  bred  a  lawyer.  He  possessed  great  genius, 
but  it  was  wild  and  unchastened.  His  piety  was 
active  and  fervent,  but  also  gloomy  and  austere. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  which  were  greater,  his  ex- 
cellencies or  defects. 

VI.  Rites  and  ceremonies  began  in  this  century 
to  be  considerably  increased.  This  was  done  in 
order  to  conciliate  the  minds  of  Jews  and  Pagans 
to  Christianity.  "  The  Christians  were  pronounced 
atheists,"  says  Dr.  Mosheim,  "  because  they 
were  destitute  of  temples,  altars,  victims,  priests, 
and  all  that  pomp,  in  which  the  vulgar  suppose 
the  essence  of  religion  to  consist.  For  unenlight- 
ened persons  are  prone  to  estimate  religion  by 
what  meets  their  eyes.  To  silence  this  accusa- 
tion, the  Christian  doctors  thought  they  must  in- 
troduce some  external  rites,  which  would  strike 
the  senses  of  people  ;  so  that  they  could  maintain, 
that  they  really  had  all  those  things  of  which 
Christians  were  charged  with  being  destitu^*^, 
though  under  different  forms."  The  same  author 
tells  us  that  "  many  ceremonies  took  their  rise 


SECOND    CENTURY.  35 

from  the  custom  of  the  Egyptians,  and  of  almost 
all  the  eastern  nations,  of  conveying  instruction 
by  images,  actions,  and  sensible  signs  and  em- 
blems. The  Christian  doctors,  therefore,  thought 
it  would  be  advantageous  to  the  cause  of  Christi- 
anity, to  place  the  truths,  which  are  necessary  to 
be  known  in  order  to  salvation,  as  it  were,  before 
the  eyes  of  the  multitude,  who  with  difficulty  con- 
template abstract  truths." 

Meetings  for  public  worship  were  held  in  pri- 
vate houses,  caves,  and  places  where  the  dead 
were  buried,  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  (called 
in  conformity  with  heathen  custom,  Sunday^  and 
sometimes  on  the  seventh,  which  was  the  Jewish 
Sabbath.  These  meetings  were  frequently  after 
night,  or  before  day  in  the  morning.  Their  reli- 
gious exercises  consisted  in  prayers,  reading  the 
Scriptures,  short  discourses  on  Christian  duty, 
singing  hymns,  the  Lord's  supper,  and  love  feasts. 
Justin  Martyr  gives  the  following  account  of  their 
manner  of  worship  :  "  On  the  day  which  is  call- 
ed Sunday,  all,  whether  dwelling  in  the  towns  or 
in  the  villages,  hold  meetings ;  and  the  memoirs 
of  the  apostles,  and  the  writings  of  the  prophets 
are  read,  as  much  as  the  time  will  permit ;  then, 
the  reader  closing,  the  President  in  a  speech,  ex- 
horts and  excites  to  an  imitation  of  those  excellent 
examples ;  then  we  all  rise  and  pour  forth  united 
prayers;  and  when  we  close  our  prayer,  as  was 
before  said,  bread  is  brought  forward,  and  wine 
and  water ;  and  the  President  utters  prayers  and 
thanksgivings,  according  to  his  ability,  and  the 
people  respond  by  saying  amen  ;  and  a  distribu- 
tion and  participation  of  the  things  blessed,  takes 
place  to  each  one  present,  and  to  those  absent,  i 
is  sent  by  the  deacons.     And  those  who  are  pros 


36  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

perous  and  willing,  give  what  they  choose,  each 
according  to  his  own  pleasure ;  and  what  is  col- 
lected, is  deposited  with  the  President,  and  he 
carefidly  relieves  the  orphans  and  widows,  and 
those  who  from  sickness  or  other  causes  are 
needy,  and  also  those  in  prison,  and- the  strangers 
that  are  residing  with  us,  and  in  short,  all  that 
have  need  of  help.  We  all  commonly  hold  our 
assemblies  on  Sunday,  because  it  is  the  first  d^, 
on  which  God  converted  the  darkness  and  matter, 
and  framed  the  world ;  and  Jesus  Christ  our  Sa- 
viour, on  the  same  day,  arose  from  the  dead." 
Justin  makes  no  mention  here  of  singing  as  a  part 
of  the  public  worship  of  Christians.  But  Pliny  in 
his  epistle,  assures  us,  "  that  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  assemble  on  a  certain  day  before  light, 
and  sing  a  hymn  by  turns  among  themselves  to 
Christ  as  to  God,"  and  both  the  New  iTestament, 
and  all  antiquity,  recognize  singing,  as  part  of 
Christian  worship. 

That  there  were  no  public  prescribed  Liturgies 
now  in  use,  is  manifest.  We  never  find  the  ex- 
pression, "  reading  prayers,"  which  afterwards 
became  current,  used  in  this  century,  or  for  seve- 
ral subsequent  centuries.  On  the  contrary,  offi- 
ciating ministers  are  said  to  pour  out  prayers 
«  according  to  their  ability" — "  with  their  utmost 
strength" — to  pray  "  from  the  heart" — and  "  with- 
out a  monitor."  They  are  represented  as  pray- 
ing with  their  hands  lifted  up,  or  stretched  forth 
toward  heaven  ; — with  "  the  eyes  of  their  bodies 
closed,  and  the  eyes  of  their  minds  lifted  up  to- 
ward heaven."  These  expressions  preclude  the 
possibility  of  prayers  having  been  read  from  a 
prescribed  form. 

Anniversary  festivals  were    observed   in    this 


SECOND    CENTURY,  37 

century,  in  memory  of  the  Saviour's  death  and 
resurrection  ;  and  of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spi- 
rit on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  The  former  was 
called  Pasr.ha,  the  Passover,  or,  as  we  are  ac- 
customed to  term  it,  Easter.  This  name  was  de- 
rived from  the  Teutonic  goddess  Eostre,  whose 
festival  was  annually  celebrated  by  our  Saxon 
ancestors  in  April,  for  which  the  first  Roman 
missionaries,  toward  the  close  of  the  sixth  centu- 
ry, substituted,  as  was  their  method  then,  the 
paschal  feast.  A  dispute  arose  at  an  early  period 
between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches  about 
the  time  of  celebrating  Easter.  The  Asiatic 
churches  kept  it  on  the  same  day  that  the  Jews 
kept  their  Passover,  which  was  the  fourteenth  day, 
or  full  moon,  of  the  first  Jewish  month,  which 
might  fall  on  any  day  of  the  week.  The  Latin 
churches  kept  Easter  always  on  that  Sunday 
which  was  the  first  after  the  same  fourteenth  day, 
or  first  full  moon  of  the  new  year.  The  Jews  be- 
gan their  ecclesiastical  year  with  the  new  moon 
of  March.  This  difTerence  in  the  time  of  holding 
Easter,  was  the  cause  of  much  contention  between 
the  East  and  West,  until  it  was  finally  settled  by 
the  Council  of  Nice,  in  favour  of  the  Latin  mode, 
(A.  D.  325.)  The  other  festival,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  descent  of  the  Spirit,  called  the  Pente- 
cost^ received  from  our  ancestors,  many  centuries 
after  this,  the  name  of  Whitsunday  or  white  Sun- 
day^ because  it  was  one  of  the  stated  times  for  the 
administration  of  baptism,  when  they  who  were 
baptized  were  clothed  in  white  garments,  in  token 
of  that  spiritual  purity  they  were  believed  to  have 
obtained  in  baptism. 

In  the  celebration   of  the  Lord's    supper,  the 
bread   and  wine  were  consecrated  with   certain 
4 


38  ECCLESIASTICAL    IlISTORV. 

prayers  uttered  by  the  bishop  of  the  congregation. 
The  bread  was  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  the 
wine  mixed  with  water.  Portions  of  the  conse- 
crated elements  were  sent  to  the  absent  and  the 
sick,  in  token  of  fraternal  affection.  "  There  is 
much  evidence,"  says  Dr.  Mosheim,  "  that  this 
most  holy  rite  was  regarded  as  necessary  to  the 
attainment  of  salvation :  and  I  therefore  dare  not 
accuse  of  error,  those  who  believe  that  the  sacred 
supper  was,  in  this  century,  given  to  infants." 

Baptism  was  performed  at  Easter  and  Whitsun- 
tide, the  prevalent  mode*  of  which  was  the  im- 
mersion of  the  whole  body  in  water  in  the  name 
of  the  Trinity.  Adults  were  required  to  repeat 
the  Creed,  to  renounce  all  their  sins,  with  the  devil 
and  his  pomp.  The  baptized  were  signed  with 
the  cross,  anointed,  and  commended  to  God  by 
prayer  and  imposition  of  hands.  They  had  milk 
and  honey  given  them  to  eat,  and  were  clothed 
in  white  garments.  No  other  sponsors  than  parents 
were  now  known,  nor  for  several  centuries  after- 
wards, if  the  parents  were  living,  and  professed  to 
be  Christians.  If  they  were  either  dead,  or  deem- 
ed unqualified  to  offer  their  children  in  baptism, 
the  children  were  presented  for  this  ordinance  by 
any  w^ho  were  willing  to  undertake  their  religious 
education.  Baptism  was  called  regeneration,  and 
the  sign  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  thing  sig- 
nified. 

VII.  The  heretics  of  this  century  were  chiefly 
of  two  classes — Jewish  converts  who  adhered  to 
the  rules  and  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  law ;  and 
various  tribes  of  Gnostics,  who  corrupted  Christi- 


*  See  Wall's  Hist,  of  Infant  Baptism,  Part  II.  chap.  ix.  page 
352,  &c. 


SECOND    CENTL'RY.  39 

mity  by  combining  with  it  different  systems  of 
heathen  philosophy.  Ot^  the  first  were  the  Naza- 
renes,  who  adhered  to  the  rites  of  Moses  ;  and  the 
Ebionites  who  not  only  adhered  to  the  rites  of 
Moses,  but  also  to  the  traditions  of  the  Elders,  and 
also  denied  the  Divinity  of  Christ.  Of  the  Gnos- 
tics, were  the  followers  of  Marcion,  Basilides,  Va- 
lentinus,  Tatian,  &c.  One  Montanus  pretended 
to  be  the  Comforter,  promised  by  Christ.  He  at- 
tempted no  change  in  doctrine,  but  professed  to 
be  commissioned  to  perfect  the  moral  system 
taught  by  Christ  and  his  disciples.  He  prescrib- 
ed very  rigid  rules  of  life,  forbade  second  marri- 
ages, refused  to  restore  the  lapsed,  and  discounte- 
nanced learning ^nd  philosophy.  Among  his  fol- 
lowers were  two  very  opulent  ladies,  Priscilla  and 
Maximilla,  who  with  others,  uttered  prophecies 
after  the  example  of  their  master,  whom  they  call- 
ed tlie  Paraclete,  or  Comforter.  This  sect,  which 
spread  considerably,  was  advocated  by  Tertullian, 
a  man  of  genius,  but  constitutionally  austere  and 
gloomy. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  century,  within  a  little 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the 
first  preaching  of  the  gospel,  it  is  obvious  to  re- 
mark the  changes  already  introduced  into  the 
Christian  church,  Christianity  began  already  to 
wear  the  garb  of  heathenism.  The  seeds  of  most 
of  those  errors  that  afterwards  so  entirely  overran 
the  church,  marred  its  beauty,  and  tarnished  its 
glory,  were  already  beginning  to  take  root.  Min- 
isterial 'parity^  which  had  undoubtedly  existed  un- 
der the  ministry  of  the  apostles,  was  now  begin- 
ning to  yield  to  the  encroachments  of  ambition, 
and  that  distinction  of  grades  began  to  be  estab- 
lished that  ended  in  the  Papal  Hierarchy,     That 


40  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

respect  and  sanctity  began  to  be  ascribed  to  exter- 
nal austerities,  which  in  alter  ages  overran  the 
church  with  monachism.  Ceremonies  began  to 
be  added,  which  continued  to  increase,  until,  un- 
der papal  authority,  the  whole  of  religion  was 
made  to  consist  of  little  else.  But  these  things 
are  easily  accounted  for,  as  they  are  congenial 
with  the  natural  corruption,  prejudices,  and  pro- 
pensities of  the  human  heart. 


CENTURY   III. 

1.  Persecution  under  Decius  — 2.  Boundaries  of  the  church 
extended.— 3.  Learning. — 4.  Increase  of  the  power  and  au- 
thority of  bishops. — 5.  Writers. — 6.  Theology  corrupted.— 
7.  Ceremonies  multiplied. — 8.  Heresies. 

I.  In  this  century,  the  church  enjoyed  more  fa- 
vour and  toleration  in  general  from  the  Roman 
government  than  before ;  and  several  of  the  em- 
perors even  showed  themselves  friendly,  so  that 
they  were  supposed  by  some  to  have  secretly  em- 
braced the  Christian  faith.  Many  Christians 
were  to  be  found  holding  high  offices  both  in  the 
court  and  in  the  army  ;  and  under  most  of  the 
emperors,  no  impediment  lay  in  their  way  to  the 
attainment  of  the  highest  public  stations  and  hon 
ours.  Yet  they  were  liable  tc  suffer  great  trou- 
bles from  popular  tumults,  often  excited  against 
them  by  pagan  priests  ;  and  also  from  magistrates 
and  governors  of  provinces  who  were  unfriendly 
to  them,  and  whose  avarice  often  led  them  to  op- 
press the  Christians  in  order  to  extort  money  from 


THIRD    CENTURY.  41 

them.  In  this  way,  niciny  suffered  martyrdom, 
imprisonment,  &;c.,  under  the  most  Iriendly  of  the 
emperors.  But  several  of  the  emperors  of  this 
century  published  severe  edicts  against  the  Chris- 
tians. The  most  terrible  was  that  of  Decius,  (A. 
D.  249)  by  which  "  the  governors  were  command- 
ed, on  pain  of  forfeiting  their  own  lives,  either  to 
exterminate  all  Christians  utterly,  or  bring  them 
back  by  pains  and  tortures  to  the  religion  of  their 
fathers."  This  persecution  was  more  dreadful 
than  any  that  preceded  it,  because  it  extended  over 
the  whole  Roman  empire,  and  because  of  the  se- 
vere tortures  and  cruelty  used  to  compel  Chris- 
tians to  apostatize,  and  offer  incense  to  the  heathen 
idols.  Multitudes  were  cut  off  in  every  part  of 
the  empire  by  various  species  of  punishment :  and 
many,  dismayed  rather  by  a  dread  of  long  con- 
tinued tortures,  than  of  death  itself,  professed  to 
renounce  Christ,  and  procured  safety  for  them- 
selves, either  by  offering  incense  Iftfore  the  idols, 
or  by  the  payment  of  money.  Much  dispute  after- 
ward arose  in  the  church,  respecting  the  terms 
upon  which  these  lapsed  persons  should  be  restor- 
ed to  Christian  fellowship.  Some  were  for  en- 
forcing the  severe  penance  prescribed  by  the  laws 
of  the  church,  while  others  were  for  a  milder 
treatment.  This  controversy  issued  in  the  schism 
of  the  Novatians.  Gallus,  the  successor  of  Deci- 
us, renewed  the  persecution  in  A.  D.  251  ;  and 
Valerian  afterwards  in  A.  D.  257.  Under  this 
last  emperor,  suffered  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Car 
thage,  Sixtus,  bishop  of  Rome,  and  Laurentius,  a 
deacon  of  Rome,  who  was  roasted  before  a  slow 
fire. 

II.  The  boundaries  of  the  church  were  extend- 
ed m  this  century,  but  in  what  countries,  to  what 
4* 


42  ElX'LESIASTICAL    FIISTORY. 

extent,  and  by  what  means  is  not  so  Certain.  The 
Goths,  a  barbarous  people,  dwelling  on  the  west 
of  the  Black  Sea,  were  converted  to  Christianity 
Dy  means  of  certain  Christian  ministers  whom 
they  had  carried  captive  from  Asia.  Seven  pious 
missionaries,  whose  names  are  recorded,  migrated 
into  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  and 
founded  churches  in  Paris,  Tours,  Aries,  and  sev- 
eral other  chief  towns.  In  Germany,  a  number 
of  churches  were  established,  and  Scotland,  it  is 
probable,  received  the  gospel  in  this  century. 
Miracles,  although  less  common,  were  still  per- 
formed, Mosheim  tells  us,  by  many  Christians. 
The  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  various  lan- 
guages, and  the  labours  of  Origen  in  dissemina- 
ting copies  of  them,  were  doubtless  a  means  of 
aiding  the  progress  of  Christianity.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  gospel  in  reforming  the  morals,  and 
improving  the  character  and  condition  of  men, 
had  much  effe^f  in  the  same  way.  The  church 
never  wielded  a  sharper  weapon  against  its  ene- 
mies than  the  holy  lives  of  its  members. 

III.  Learning  in  this  century,  greatly  declined. 
Longinus,  the  rhetorician,  however,  who  is  still 
read  in  our  schools,  and  Dion  Cassius,  a  fine  his- 
torian, lived  in  this  century.  The  school  of  Am- 
monius  became  very  celebrated,  who  attempted  to 
amalgamate  Christianity  with  the  old  heathen 
systems  of  religion  and  philosophy.  Christ  was 
consorted  with  Pythagoras,  Apollonius,  and  the 
like  ;  and  their  miracles  and  mighty  works  were 
compared  with  his.  The  design  of  this  school 
was,  to  combine  all  systems  of  religion  and  phi- 
losophy into  one  ;  but  they  disagreed  among  them- 
selves. Porphyry  distinguished  himself  in  this 
school,  as  a  very  subtle  opposer  of  Christianity 


THIRD    CENTURY.  43 

Many  doctors  of  the  church,  and  particularly  Ori- 
gen,  were  deeply  tinctured  with  this  kind  of  phi- 
losophy, and  hence  arose  many  of  the  errors  and 
corruptions  of  the  church. 

IV.  The  power  and  authority  of  bishops  as  a 
superior  order  of  the  clergy,  were  much  advanced 
in  this  century  ;  but  they  did  not  as  yet  hold  an 
independent  rank.  Cyprian  himself,  the  boldest 
defender  of  episcopal  power  and  authority,  "  did 
not  presume  to  determine  any  question  of  moment 
by  his  own  authority,  or  without  the  advice  and 
consent  of  his  presbyters,  and  was  accustomed  to 
take  the  sense  of  the  whole  church  on  subjects  of 
peculiar  interest."  Yet  episcopal  pre-eminence 
was  claimed :  and  in  order  to  support  such  claim, 
new  doctrines  were  taught,  namely — that  bishops 
are  the  successors  of  the  apostles^  and  as  such  are 
amenable  to  none  hut  God  only — that  the  whole 
church  is  founded  upon  the  bishop,  and  that  no 
one  is  a  true  member,  who  is  not  submissive  to  his 
bishop — that  bishops  represent  Christ  himself, 
and  govern  and  judge  in  his  name.  Hence,  in  fol- 
lowing ages,  all  bishops  styled  themselves  vicars 
of  Christ. 

"  This  change  in  the  form  of  ecclesiastical  gov- 
ernment was  followed  by  a  corrupt  state  of  the 
clergy.  For  although  examples  of  primitive  piety 
and  virtue  were  not  wanting,  yet  many  were  ad- 
dicted to  dissipation,  arrogance,  voluptuousness, 
contention,  and  other  vices.  Many  bishops  now 
affected  the  state  of  princes,  and  especially  those 
who  had  charge  of  the  more  populous  and  wealthy 
congregations  ;  for  they  sat  on  thrones,  surround- 
ed by  their  ministers,  and  other  ensigns  of  their 
ghostly  power  and  perhaps  also  dazzled  the  eyes 
and  the  minds  of  the  populace  with  their  splendid 


44  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

attire.  The  presbyters  imitated  the  example  oi' 
their  superiors,  and  neglecting  the  duties  of  their 
office,  lived  in  indolence  and  pleasure. — This  em- 
boldened the  deacons  to  make  encroachments  upon 
the  office  and  prerogatives  of  the  presbyters." 
They  were  no  longer  willing  to  perform  those 
meaner  offices,  to  which  they  had  once  cheerfully 
submitted.  This,  together  with  the  increase  of 
ceremonies,  made  way  for  the  introduction  of  new 
offices.  Sub-deacons^  door-keepers^  readers^  exor- 
cists^ &c.  were  now  added.  These  last  named 
owed  their  origin  to  the  doctrine  of  the  new  Pla- 
tonic school  above  mentioned,  adopted  by  Chris- 
tians, "  that  evil  spirits  have  a  strong  desire  after 
the  human  body,  and  that  vicious  men  are  not  so 
much  impelled  to  sin  by  their  natural  depravity, 
and  the  influence  of  bad  examples,  as  by  the  sug- 
gestions of  some  evil  spirit,  lodging  within  them." 

"  Marriage  was  allowed  to  all  the  clergy,  from 
the  highest  rank  to  the  lowest.  Yet  those  were 
counted  more  holy  and  excellent,  who  lived  in  celi- 
bacy. For  it  was  the  general  persuasion,  that 
those  who  lived  in  wedlock,  were  much  more  ex- 
posed to  the  assaults  of  evil  spirits  than  others  : 
and  it  was  of  immense  importance  that  no  impure 
or  malignant  spirit  should  assail  the  mind  or  the 
body  of  one  who  was  to  instruct  and  govern 
others.  Such  persons  therefore  wished,  if  pos- 
sible, to  have  nothing  to  do  with  conjugal  life." 
And  much  corruption  soon  resulted  from  the  adop- 
tion of  such  opinions,  especially  in  the  church  in 
A-frica. 

V.  "Of  the  writers  of  this  century,  the  mosL 
distinguished  for  the  celebrity  of  his  name  and  for 
ihe  extent  of  his  writings,  was  Origen,  a  presby- 
ter, and  catechist  of  Alexandria,  a  man  truly  great. 


THIRD    CENTURY.  45 

and  a  luminary  to  the  Christian  world.  Had  his 
discernment,  and  the  soundness  of  his  judgment 
been  equal  to  his  genius,  his  piety,  his  industry, 
his  erudition,  and  his  other  accomplishments,  he 
would  deserve  almost  unbounded  commendation. 
He  published  the  first  Polyglot  Bible,  called  his 
Hexapla.  He  stood  at  the  head  of  the  interpre- 
ters of  Scripture  of  that  day ;  but  unfortunately 
he  philosophized  too  much,  and  preferred  the  alle- 
gorical and  mystical  sense  of  Scripture,  to  the  lite- 
ral. "  He  taught  that  the  words,  in  many  parts 
of  the  Bible,  convey  no  meaning  at  all,  and  in 
some  places,  where  he  acknowledged  there  was 
some  meaning  in  the  words,  he  maintained  that 
under  the  things  there  expressed,  there  was  con- 
tained a  hidden  and  concealed  sense,  which  was 
much  to  be  preferred  to  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
words."  This  concealed  sense  he  divided  into  the 
moral  and  the  mystical ;  and  these  he  preferred 
and  sought  after,  to  the  utter  neglect  and  con- 
tempt, frequently,  of  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
words. 

Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  was  the  most 
distinguished  writer  among  the  Latins.  "  The 
epistles  and  tracts  of  this  distinguished  and  elo- 
quent man,  breathe  such  a  spirit  of  ardent  piety, 
that  almost  no  one  can  read  them  without  feeling 
his  soul  stirred  within  him.  Yet  Cyprian  would 
doubtless  have  been  a  better  writer,  if  he  had  been 
less  studious  of  rhetorical  ornaments;  and  a  better 
bishop,  if  he  had  been  more  capable  of  controlling 
his  temper,  and  of  discriminating  between  truth 
and  error."  He  was  indefatigable  and  efficient  in 
his  episcopal  office,  preached  and  wrote  incessant- 
ly, and  accomplished  more  in  ten  years,  than  most 
men  in  a  long  life.     He  possessed  great  mtrepidi- 


46  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ty  of  character,  was  a  severe  disciplinarian,  and 
entertained  high  ideas  of  episcojial  power  and  pre- 
rogative. He  has  therefore  always  been  a  fa- 
vourite with  those  who  have  held  to  the  superi- 
ority of  bishops.  Other  writers  of  this  ceniury 
were,  Julias  Africanus,  Hipj)olylus^  Grcgorij, 
Dionyaius  the  Great,  Methodius,  Minucius  Fe- 
lix, &c. 

VI.  The  theology  of  this  century  was  adultera- 
ted with  the  doctrines  of  the  New  Platonic  Phi- 
losophy. Origen,  who  was  a  great  admirer  of  this 
philosophy,  employed  it  in  explaining  the  doctrines 
of  the  gospel  ;  and  this  led  him  to  the  allegorical 
method  of  interpreting  the  Scriptures,  in  which 
he  had  many  admirers  and  followers.  The  ?fiys- 
tic  theology  also  had  its  rise  toward  the  latter  end 
of  this  century,  but  its  authors  are  unknown.  It 
arose  from  the  same  source  of  error,  the  Platonic 
Philosophy.  They  who  embraced  it,  taught  that 
"  reason  in  us  is  an  emanation  from  God  himself, 
and  comprehends  the  elements  or  first  principles 
of  truths,  human  and  divine.  Yet  they  denied 
that  men,  by  their  own  efforts  and  care,  can  excite 
this  divine  spark  within  them  ;  and  therefore  they 
disapproved  of  the  endeavours  of  men  to  gain 
clear  perceptions  of  latent  truths  by  means  of  de- 
finitions, discrimination,  and  reflection.  On  the 
contrary  they  maintained  that  silence,  inaction, 
solitude,  repose,  the  avoidance  of  all  active  scenes, 
and  the  mortification  and  subjugation  of  the  body, 
tended  to  excite  this  internal  reason  to  put  forth 
its  hidden  energies,  and  thus  to  instruct  men  in 
divine  things."  Such  views  as  these  induced 
many  to  retire  into  the  deserts,  and  emaciate  their 
bodies  by  fasting  and  hardships,  that  so  they  might 
excite  the  divine  word  within  them. 


THIRD    CENTURY.  47 

Among  the  controversies  that  divided  Christians 
in  this  century  the  most  consideral)le  were,  con- 
cerning the  ^millenniums  the  hcqitAsm  of  lieretAcs^ 
and  conc(!rning  Orv^en.  By  some  it  was  main- 
tained that  Christ  would  come  and  dwell  on  the 
earth  a  thousand  years,  during  which  period  the 
sainis  should  enjoy  all  the  delights  of  a  terrestrial 
paradise;  understanding  Rev.  xx.  1 — 6  and  simi- 
lar passages,  in  a  literal  sense.  Origen  success- 
fully opposed  this  doctrine.  The  controversy 
ahout  baptism  respected  the  validity  of  it  when 
performed  by  heretics.  Some  held  that  baptism 
in  such  a  case  was  invalid,  and  should  be  repeated  ; 
others  denied  that  it  should  ever  be  repeated. 
Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  and  Stephen,  bishop 
of  Rome,  seem  to  have  been  at  the  head  of  this 
controversy.  The  contests  concerning  Origen 
were  moved  by  Demetrius,  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
who  was  probably  influenced  by  envy  and  hatred 
more  than  any  thing  else.  He  accused  Origen 
in  his  absence,  before  an  assembled  council,  and 
divested  him  of  his  ministerial  character. 

VII.  In  this  century,  ceremonies  were  greatly 
increased.  Public  preaching  began  to  assume  a 
more  regular  form,  in  houses  appropriated  to  the 
worship  of  God.  Longer  prayers  were  made,  and 
more  ceremony  used,  in  the  administration  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  It  was  believed  by  all  to  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  salvation  ;  and  therefore  they 
universally  desired  infants  to  be  partakers  of  it. 
Baptism  was  publicly  administered,  twice  a  year, 
to  candidates  who  had  gone  through  a  long  pre- 
paration and  trial,  none  being  present  as  specta- 
tors, but  such  as  had  been  themselves  baptized. 
This  rite  was  supposed  to  secure  the  remission  of 
sins ;  and  the  imposition  of  the  bishop's  hands,  to 


48  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

confer  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  necessary  for 
living  a  holy  lif(^  None  were  admitted  to  bap- 
tism, before  they  were  exorcised,  and  declared  to 
be  free  from  tlie  servitude  of  the  devil.  The  per- 
sons bai)tized  returned  home,  decorated  with  a 
crown  and  a  white  robe  ;  the  first  being  indicative 
of  their  victory  over  the  world  and  their  lusts,  and 
the  latter  of  their  acquired  innocence.  Greater 
sanctity  and  necessity  were  now  attributed  to 
fasting  than  was  done  before,  because  it  was  the 
general  belief  that  demons  laid  fewer  snares  for  the 
abstemious,  and  those  that  fared  hard,  than  for  the 
full  fed,  and  such  as  lived  generously.  There 
were  no  Liturgies  yet  prescribed  by  the  church. 
Public  prayers  were  conducted  according  to  the 
discretion  of  each  pastor.  Some  composed  pray- 
ers for  their  own  use  ;  and  some  of  the  more 
eminent,  for  the  use  of  their  less  accomplished 
neighbours.  The  fact  is,  that,  as  piety  declined, 
and  as  pastors  became  less  and  less  able  to  pray 
extemporaneously  to  acceptance,  they  availed 
themselves  of  such  helps  as  they  could  obtain. 
But  forms  were  not  generally,  and  far  less  exclu- 
sively, used  now,  or  for  several  hundred  years 
afterwards.  There  was  supposed  to  be  great 
efficacy  in  the  sign  of  the  cross,  against  all  sorts 
of  evils,  but  especially  against  evil  spirits :  they 
were  careful  therefore  to  cross  themselves  when 
about  to  undertake  any  important  business.  The 
burning  of  incense  was  introduced  into  many 
churches.  The  Christians  originally  abhorred  the 
use  of  incense  in  public  worship,  as  being  a  part 
of  the  worship  of  idols.  Its  use  was  first  permit- 
ted at  funerals,  against  offensive  smells.  After- 
wards it  was  used  at  the  induction  of  magistrates 


THIRD    CENTURY.  49 

and  bishops,  and  also  in  public  worship,  to  temper 
the  bad  air  of  crowded  assemblies  in  hot  countries, 
and  at  last  degenerated  into  a  superstitious  rite. 

VIII.  Among  the  heretics  that  sprung  up  in  this 
century,  were  the  3Ianicheans,  the  followers  of 
Manes,  a  Persian  by  birth,  and  one  of  their  Magi 
before  his  conversion  to  Christianity.  He  pro- 
fessed to  be  the  paraclete,  or  Comforter,  that 
Christ  promised  to  send,  and  had  therefore  author- 
ity to  develope  more  fully  the  system  which  he 
had  left  incomplete.  The  doctrine  of  Manes  was 
a  motley  mixture  of  the  tenets  of  Christianity 
with  the  ancient  philosophy  of  the  Persians.  He 
combined  these  two  systems,  and  applied  and  ac- 
commodated to  Jesus  Christ,  the  characters  and 
actions  which  the  Persians  attributed  to  the  god 
Mithras.  He  rejected  the  whole  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  many  parts  of  the  New,  and  published 
a  gospel  of  his  own.  His  rules  of  life  were  very 
severe.  He  directed  his  disciples  that  would  be 
perfect,  to  abstain  from  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  fish, 
wine,  all  intoxicating  drink,  wedlock,  and  all 
amorous  gratifications  ;  and  to  live  in  a  state  of 
the  severest  penury,  nourishing  their  emaciated 
bodies  with  bread,  herbs,  pulse,  and  melons,  to 
abstain  from  active  life,  and  be  divested  both  of 
love  and  hatred. 

The  Sabellians,  the  followers  of  Sabellius  an 
African  bishop.  He  denied  a  Trinity  of  persons 
in  the  Godhead,  and  held  that  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost  were  three  titles  or  fuiictions  of  the 
same  person. 

The  Paidians,  disciples  of  Paul  of  Samosata, 

«  He  taught  that  the  Son  and  Holy  Spirit  exist  in 

God,  just  as  reason  and  the  operative  power,  do 

in  mah ;  that  Christ  was  born  a  mere  man  ;  but 

5 


60  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

that  the  wisdom  or  reason  Aoyo?)  of  the  Father 
descended  into  him,  and  enabled  him  to  teach  and 
worlv  miracles  ;  that  on  account  of"  this  union  of 
the  divine  word  (Aoyoj)  with  the  man  Christ,  we 
might  say,  Christ  was  God,  though  not  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word."  He  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  father  of  the  modern  Socinians  ;  and 
his  errors  were  severely  condemned  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice. 

The  Novatians,  called  also  Cathari,  that  is, 
pure.  They  refused  to  restore  persons  to  the 
communion  of  the  church  who  had  fallen  into  any 
great  sin  after  baptism ;  because  they  held  that 
baptism  was  the  only  means  in  the  hands  of  the 
church  of  remitting  sins,  which  being  once  per- 
formed, could  not  be  repeated.  Properly  speak- 
ing, the  Novatians  were,  in  the  modern  accepta- 
tion of  the  term,  schismatics  rather  than  heretics. 


CENTURY  IV. 

1.  Persecution  under  Diocletian. — 2.  Constantine. — 3.  Julian 
the  apostate. — 4.  Learning. — 5.  The  church  corrupted  by  its 
connexion  with  the  State. — 6.  Writers. — 7.  Corruptions  in 
Doctrine. — 8.  Controversiea — 9.  Ceremonies. — 10.  Donatists. 
— 11.  Arian  heresy. 

I.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century,  the  church 
enjoyed  peace ;  but  it  was  soon,  broken  by  a  ten 
years'  persecution  under  Diocletian  and  his  son-in- 
law,  Galerius  Maximianus,  excited  and  carried 
on  chiefly  by  the  latter.  This  persecution  was 
most  severe  and  cruel      Houses  filled  with  Christ- 


FOURTH    CENTURY.  51 

ians  were  set  on  fire,  and  numbers,  tied  hand  and 
foot,  or  with  weights  affixed  to  them,  were  cast 
into  the  sea.  In  Phrygia,  a  whole  city  with  all  its 
inhabitants,  was  burnt  to  ashes,  because  not  an 
individual  in  it  would  offer  sacrifice  to  the  heathen 
idols.  It  is  related  that  17,000  were  slain  m  one 
month's  time,  and  that  during  the  continuance  of 
this  persecution,  in  the  province  of  Egypt  alone, 
no  less  than  144,000  Christians  died  by  the  vio- 
lence  of  their  persecutors ;  besides  700,000  that 
died  through  the  fatigues  of  banishment,  or  the 
public  works  to  which  they  were  condemned. 
This  persecution  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the 
death  of  Galerius  Maximianus  ;  or  rather  by  an 
edict  which  he  published  while  labouring  under  a 
terrific  and  lingering  disease,  of  which  he  soon 
after  died. 

II.  Some  years  previous  to  the  death  of  Gale- 
rius, Constantino,  afterwards  called  the  Great,  had 
succeeded,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  to  the  empire 
of  the  West.  His  sagacity  enabled  him  to  dis- 
cover that  it  was  the  best  policy  to  protect  the 
Christians ;  in  this,  his  colleague  Maxentius  im- 
itated him,  and  while  persecutions  raged  in  the 
eastern  provinces  of  the  empire,  the  church, 
throughout  the  provinces  of  Africa,  Italy,  Spain, 
Gaul,  and  Britain,  enjoyed  a  season  of  repose. 
Constantino,  urged  sometimes  by  necessity,  and 
oftener  by  ambition,  commenced  in  A.  D.  312, 
and  carried  on,  with  some  intervals,  a  series  of 
wars  with  the  other  emperors,  which,  in  A.  D. 
324,  terminated  in  his  remaining  the  sole  occu- 
pant of  the  imperial  throne.  Inclined  from  the 
first  to  give  equal  protection  to  the  Christians  with 
his  other  subjects,  he  afterwards  favoured  them, 
and  finished  by  establishing  their  religion  as  that 


52  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  the  Roman  Empire.  In  this  manner,  he  was 
the  instrument  of  Providence  in  delivering  the 
chiircii  from  the  grievous  persecutions,  which, 
hitherto  the  superstition,  prejudices,  and  malice  of 
heathen  priests  and  magistrates  had  excited  ;  and 
in  so  completely  overturning  tlie  pagan  system, 
that  it  could  never  afterwards  recover  from  the 
shock,  or  succeed  in  re-assuming  its  former  posi- 
tion and  influence.  How  far  Constantino  himself 
experienced  the  power  of  that  religion  which  he 
favoured,  cannot  now  be  known  satisfactorily. 
He  rather  appears  to  have  regarded  Christianity 
with  the  eye  of  a  statesman,  than  of  a  disciple ; 
and  the  story  of  his  conversion,  from  having  seen 
a  vision  of  a  cross,  on  the  eve  of  his  victory  over 
Maxentius,  admits  of  serious  doubt.*  The  three 
sons  of  Constantino  the  Great,  namely,  Constan- 
ti?ie  II.,  Constantius^  and  Constans^  succeeded 
him  in  the  empire ;  and  they  continued,  as  he  had 
done,  to  promote  the  Christian  religion.  They 
even  used  coercive  measures,  which  of  course 
only  made  nominal  Christians.  A  law  was  en- 
acted in  the  year  342,  that  all  the  heathen  temples 
should  be  shut  up,  and  that  no  person  should  be 
allowed  to  go  near  them.  All  sacrifices,  and  all 
consultations  of  the  oracles  and  soothsayers,  were 
prohibited,  on  pain  of  death,  and  confiscation  of 
property.  Constantino  the  Great  had  allowed  to 
the  clergy,  the  former  privileges  of  the  pagan 
priests  ;  and  permitted  legacies  to  be  left  to  the 
churches,  which  were  every  where  erected  and 
enlarged.  He  was  gratified  with  seeing  the 
bishops  assume  great  state ;  for  he  thought  the 
more  respect  the  bishops  commanded,  the  more 
inclined  the  pagans  would  be  to  embrace   Christ- 


FOURTH    CENTURY.  53 

ianity :  and  thus  ho  introduced  the  love  of  pomp 
and  display  among  the  clergy. 

III.  Hut  tilings  assumed  a  very  different  face 
after  JuiuDi^  comnionly  called  the  Apostate^  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  whole  Roman  empire,  A. 
D.  861.  He  was  educated  in  the  Christian  reli- 
gion,  but  apostatized  to  paganism  ;  and  the  princi- 
pal object  which  he  had  in  view  during  his  short 
reign  seems  to  have  been,  to  destroy  Christianity, 
and  to  reinstate  heathen  idolatry  in  all  its  former 
glory.  And  this  he  attempted  to  do,  not  so  much 
by  direct  measures,  (for  he  affected  the  character 
of  great  moderation  and  liberality,)  as  by  man- 
agement and  artifice.  He  endeavoured  to  reform 
the  pagan  idolatry,  by  introducing  improvements 
in  it  derived  from  the  Christian  worship.  He  pro- 
moted the  divisions  among  Christians,  and  took 
sides  with  heretics.  He  deprived  the  clergy  of 
many  privileges  which  they  had  enjoyed,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  perform  military  duty.  He  shut  up 
the  Christian  schools,  in  which  philosophy  and  the 
liberal  arts  were  taught.  He  wrote  books  against 
the  Christians,  in  which  he  employed  the  power 
of  ridicule.  He  showed  much  partiality  to  the 
Jews,  and  allowed  them  to  rebuild  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  in  order  to  confute  and  falsify  the  pre- 
dictions of  Scripture.  This  the  Jews  attempted, 
but  were  obliged  to  desist,  before  even  the  founda- 
tions were  laid.  For  balls  of  fire  issued  from  the 
ground,  accompanied  with  a  great  explosion  and  a 
tremendous  earthquake,  which  dispersed  both  the 
materials  that  were  collected,  and  the  workmen. 
The  truth  of  this  fact  seems  to  be  fully  attested, 
although  some  have  called  it  in  question.  By  these 
means,  had  the  life  of  this  apostate  emperor  been 
5* 


54  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

spared,  it  is  probable  that  paganism  would  have 
soon  been  restored  in  ail  its  glory.  But  before  the 
end  of  two  years,  he  was  cut  off  by  a  wound  re- 
ceived in  battle,  in  an  expedition  he  had  under- 
taken against  Persia.  The  remaining  emperors 
of  tliis  century  were  friendly  to  Christianity,  and 
did  much  to  exterminate  paganism,  especially 
TkcodoslKS  ike  Great,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the 
century,  it  had  fallen  into  general  neglect,  and 
contempt. 

The  Christians  were  severely  persecuted  in 
Persia,  in  this  century,  through  the  influence  of 
the  Magi,  and  of  the  Jews,  who  represented  them 
10  the  king  as  enemies,  and  traitors  against  the 
governn}ent.  The  gospel  was  extended  among 
the  Abyssinians,  the  Armenians,  the  Goths,  &c., 
but  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  much  of  the  primitive 
apostolic  zeal  and  activity  to  propagate  the  gospel 
had  now  subsided.  Most  of  the  miracles  of  this 
century  are  of  a  doubtful  character.  Things  were 
often  regarded  as  miraculous,  that  were  only  extra- 
ordinary. Christianity  had  now  become  popular, 
and  a  large  proportion,  perhaps  a  large  majority, 
of  those  who  embraced  it,  only  assumed  the  name, 
received  the  rite  of  baptism,  and  conformed  to 
some  of  the  external  ceremonies  of  the  church, 
while  at  heart,  and  in  moral  character,  they  were 
as  much  heathens  as  they  were  before.  Error 
and  corruption  now  came  in  upon  the  church  like 
a  flood. 

IV.  The  predominant  philosophy  of  this  centu- 
ry was  what  is  called  Modern  Platonism.  This 
system,  while  it  gave  the  highest  praise  to  Plato, 
yet  taught  that  the  great  principles  of  all  philoso- 
phical and  religious  truth  were  to  be  found  equally 
in  all  s^cts,  and  that  they  differed  from  each  other 


PV)URTH    CEXTURY.  55 

only  in  their  method  of  expressing  thenn  ;  and  that 
by  a  proper  interpretation  of  their  respective  sen- 
timents, they  might  easily  be  united  in  one  body. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  much  this  philosophy,  into 
>vhich  many  doctors  of  the  church  drank  pretty 
deeply,  was  calculated  to  encourage  the  amalga- 
mation of  heathen  notions  and  practices  with 
Christianity.  From  the  time  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  Christians  devoted  much  more  attention  to 
the  study  of  philosophy  and  the  liberal  arts,  than 
they  had  done  before ;  and  the  emperors  omitted 
no  means  that  might  awaken  and  cherish  a  thirst 
for  learning.  Schools  were  established  in  many 
of  the  towns  ;  libraries  were  formed,  and  literary 
men  were  encouraged  by  stipends,  by  privileges, 
and  by  honours.  This  was  done  in  order  that 
Christian  teachers  might  be  able  to  cope  with  their 
heathen  adversaries.  Still  there  were  many,  both 
bishops  and  presbyters  who  were  entirely  desti- 
tute of  all  science  and  learning.  And  there  was 
a  considerable  party  also  opposed  to  all  learning, 
especially  philosophical  learning,  as  destructive 
of  true  piety.  All  the  ascetics^*  monks^  and  ere- 
mites, were  inclined  to  this  party  ;  and  all  those 
who  estimated  piety  by  the  sanctity  of  the  counte- 
nance, the  sordidness  of  the  dress,  and  the  love 
of  solitude.  And  of  the  latter  class  there  were 
not  a  few. 

V.  Under  Constantine  the  Great,  the  church 
first  became  connected  with  the  state,  and  in  its 
government  was  accommodated  to  such  connexion, 

*  Ascetic  signifies  a  person  who  subjects  himself  to  severe 
religious  exercises,  such  as  fasting,  walking  on  his  bare  knees, 
wearing  sackcloth,  &c.  Monk  means  one  who  secludes  him- 
self from  the  temporal  concerns  of  life,  and  devotes  himself  to 
religion.  Eremite  or  hermit  signifies  one  who  retires  from  the 
abodes  of  man  to  spend  his  days  in  some  solitary  desert. 


56  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

upon  principles  of  state  policy.  The  emperor 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  church,  usurped 
supreme  power  over  it,  and  claimed  the  right  of 
modelling  and  controlling  it  in  such  manner  as 
would  best  subserve  the  public  good.  And  so  de- 
lighted, no  doubt,  were  the  bishops  with  the  idea 
of  having  the  emperor  at  the  head  of  the  church, 
and  of  being  entirely  released  from  the  troubles 
and  persecutions  which  they  had  suffered  under 
heathen  emperors,  that  there  was  not  found  one 
disposed  to  question  his  right  to  exercise  this  most 
unscriptural  usurpation.  "  My  kingdom,"  says 
Christ,  "  is  not  of  this  world  ;"  and  the  touch  of 
the  state,  has  never  failed  to  contaminate  the 
church.  So  it  was  now.  The  rank  which  bish- 
ops began  to  claim  in  the  preceding  century,  as  a 
superior  order  of  clergy,  became  now,  by  the  en- 
couragement of  their  emperor,  firmly  established, 
and  presbyters  were  excluded  from  any  participa- 
tion in  their  councils.  "  The  former  rights  of 
the  presbyters  and  of  the  people  were  engross- 
ed chiefly  by  the  bishops,  while  those  of  the 
whole  church,  were  transferred  to  the  emperors 
or  to  their  provincial  governors  and  magistrates  ; 
so  that  by  the  close  of  this  century,  only  the 
shadow  of  the  ancient  form  of  church  government 
remained.  The  first  (Ecumenical  or  general  coun- 
cil was  called  by  the  order  of  Constantine,  which 
met  at  Nice,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  year 
325.  It  was  judged  proper  that  causes  of  great 
importance,  and  affecting  the  church  universally, 
or  the  general  principles  of  Christianity,  should 
be  judged  and  settled  by  a  convocation  of  the 
whole  church.  There  never  was  a  general  coun- 
cil, properly  so  called,  in  which  the  whole  church 


FOI^RTII    CENTURY.  57 

was  represented,  although  the  Papists  reckon 
eighteen  of  them. 

In  accommodating  the  ecclesiastical  administra- 
tion to  that  of  the  state,  it  became  necessary  that 
new  grades  of  honour  and  pre-eminence  should 
be  introduced  among  the  bishops.  "  The  princes 
among  the  bishops  were  those  who  had  before 
held  a  pre-eminent  rank,  namely,  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria ;  with  whom  the 
bishop  of  Constantinople  was  joined  after  the  im- 
perial residence  was  transferred  to  that  city. 
These  four  prelates  answered  to  the  four  prcetori- 
an  prefects^  created  by  Constantine  ;  and,  perhaps, 
even  in  this  century,  bore  the  Jewish  title  of  Pa- 
triarchs. Next  to  these  were  the  exarclis,  corres- 
ponding with  the  civil  exarchs,  and  presiding  each 
over  several  provinces.  The  metropolitans  came 
next,  v.'ho  governed  only  single  provinces.  After 
them  ranked  the  archbishops  who  had  the  inspec- 
tion only  of  certain  districts  of  country.  The 
bishops  brought  up  the  rear,  whose  territories  were 
not  in  all  countries  of  the  same  extent."  The 
administration  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  Constantme 
divided  into  internal  and  external.  The  former, 
relating  to  the  doctrines  of  religion,  forms  of  wor- 
ship, functions  of  the  priests,  &c.,  he  left  to  the 
bishops  and  councils.  The  latter  relating  to  the 
external  condition  of  the  church,  its  discipline,  the 
rank,  honours,  and  emoluments  of  its  officers,  &c. 
he  took  upon  himself.  Hence  he  and  his  succes- 
sors assembled  councils  and  presided  in  them,  as- 
signed judges  for  religious  disputes,  decided  dis- 
putes between  bishops  and  their  people,  determined 
the  limits  of  episcopal  sees,  &c. 

"  The  first  among  the  bishops,  in  respect  to 
rank  and  dignity,  was  the  bishop  of  Rome.     Anc 


58  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORr. 

this  pre-eminence  was  not  founded  solely  on  pop- 
ular reeling  and  prejudice  of  long  standing,  and 
which  various  causes  had  given  rise  to ;  but  also 
on  those  grounds,  that  commonly  give  priority 
and  greatness  in  the  estimation  of  mortals.  Foi 
he  exceeded  all  other  bishops,  in  the  amplitude  of 
the  church  over  which  he  presided,  in  the  magni- 
tude of  his  revenues  and  possessions,  in  the  num- 
ber of  his  assistants  or  ministers  of  various  de- 
scriptions, in  the  weight  of  his  influence  with  the 
people  at  large,  and  in  the  sumptuousness  and 
magnificence  of  his  style  of  living.  These  indi- 
cations of  power  and  worldly  greatness  were  so 
fascinating  to  the  minds  of  Christians  even  in  this 
age,  that  often  most  obstinate  and  bloody  contests 
took  place  at  Rome,  when  a  new  pontiff  was  to 
be  created  by  the  suffrages  of  the  priests  and  peo- 
ple." Yet  it  is  abundantly  testified  that  the  bishops 
of  Rome  did  not,  in  this  age,  possess  supreme 
power  and  jurisdiction  in  the  church.  They  were 
citizens  of  the  commonwealth,  and  obeyed  the 
laws  and  mandates  of  the  emperor,  as  other  citi- 
zens. No  one  of  the  bishops  acknowledged  that 
he  derived  his  authority  from  the  plenary  power 
and  authority  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  ;  but  all  main- 
tained that  they  were  the  ambassadors  and  minis- 
ters of  Jesus  Christ,  and  that  their  authority  was 
derived  from  above.  When  the  seat  of  empire 
was  removed  from  Rome  to  Constantinople,  and 
that  see  raised  to  patriarchal  dignity,  the  bishop 
of  Constantinople  began  to  emulate  the  power  and 
prerogatives  of  the  bishop  of  Rome.  In  a  council 
assembled  at  Constantinople,  in  381  by  Theodo- 
sius  the  Great,  it  was  decreed  that  the  bishop  of 
Constantinople  should  be  next  to  the  bishop  of 
Rome.     This  gave  great  offence  to  the  bishop  of 


FOURTH    CENTUKY.  59 

Alexandria,  and  afterwards  gave  rise  to  those  un- 
happy contests  between  the  pontiffs  of  old  and 
new  Rome,  that  were  protracted  through  several 
centuries,  and  finally  produced  a  separation  be- 
tween the  Latin  and  Greek  churches,  which  exists 
to  this  day. 

VI.  Among  the  writers  of  this  century,  are 
Eusebius,  bishop  of  Cossarea  in  Palestine  ;  a  man 
of  great  reading  and  erudition,  and  who  acquired 
immortal  fame  by  his  labours  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory— Athanasius  bishop  of  Alexandria,  famous 
as  opposer  of  Arius,  and  who,  although  not  the 
author,  has  unconsciously  furnished  a  name  for 
the  Athanasian  Creed — John,  surnamed  Chrysos- 
tom.  "  For  overpowering  popular  eloquence 
Chrysostom  had  no  equal  among  the  fathers."  He 
was  a  while  patriarch  of  Constantinople ;  but  his 
preaching  and  discipline  were  too  strict  for  that 
corrupt  metropolis.  The  empress,  therefore,  the 
lax  clergy,  and  many  of  the  courtiers  conspiring 
against  him,  upon  the  ground  of  many  false  or 
frivolous  charges,  he  was  finally  expelled,  and  died 
soon  afterwards.  The  spirit  of  the  man,  and  his 
style  of  writing  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
extract  of  a  letter  written  to  a  friend  during  his 
exile.  "  When  driven  from  the  city,  I  cared  no- 
thing for  it.  But  I  said  to  myself,  if  the  empress 
wishes  to  banish  me,  let  her  banish  me  :  the  earth 
is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness  thereof  If  she 
would  saw  me  in  sunder,  let  her  saw  me  in  sun- 
der ;  I  have  Isaiah  for  a  pattern.  If  she  would 
plunge  me  in  the  sea,  I  remember  Jonah.  If  she 
would  thrust  me  into  the  fiery  furnace,  I  see  the 
three  children  enduring  that.  If  she  would  cast 
me  to  the  wild  beasts,  I  call  to  mind  Daniel  in  the 
den  of  lions.     If  she  would   stone   me,  let  her 


(>0  KCCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

Stone  mc  ;  I  have  before  me  Stephen,  the  proto- 
martyr.  If  she  would  take  my  head  from  me,  let 
her  take  it ;  I  have  John  the  Baptist.  If  she 
would  deprive  me  of  my  worldly  goods,  let  her  do 
it ;  naked  came  I  from  my  mother's  womb,  and 
naked  shall  I  return.  An  apostle  has  told  me, 
"  God  respecteth  no  man's  person ;"  and  "  if  1 
pleased  men,  I  should  not  be  the  servant  of  Christ." 
And  David  clothes  me  with  armour,  saying,  "  I 
will  speak  of  thy  testimony  before  kings,  and  will 
not  be  ashamed."  Other  authors  of  this  date 
were  Basil  the  Great,  bishop  of  the  Cappadocian 
Csesarea  ;  Cyril,  of  Jerusalem  ;  Epiphanius  of  Sa- 
lamina  ;  the  two  Gregories,  of  Nazianzus,  and  of 
Nyssa ;  Ephrem  the  Syrian ;  Hilary,  bishop  of 
Poictiers,  author  of  twelve  books  on  the  Trinity ; 
Lactantius,  the  most  eloquent  among  the  Latins ; 
Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan ;  Hieronymus,  common- 
ly called  Jerome,  a  monk  of  Palestine  ;  and  Au- 
gustine, commonly  called  St.  Austin,  bishop  of 
Hippo,  in  Africa.  In  early  life,  Augustine  was 
idle,  vicious,  and  dissipated.  He  ascribed  his  con- 
version at  last,  to  the  early  impressions  made  upon 
his  mind  by  a  very  pious  mother.  He  distinguish- 
ed himself  in  the  following  century,  by  his  suc- 
cessful opposition  to  the  Pelagian  Heresy. 

VII.  The  Theology  of  this  century  began  to  be 
much  adulterated  and  corrupted  with  superstition 
and  heathen  philosophy.  Hence  are  to  be  seen 
evident  traces  of  excessive  veneration  for  departed 
saints,  of  a  belief  in  a  state  o^purgatwy  for  souls 
after  death,  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  of  the 
worship  of  images  and  relics,  and  of  many  other 
opinions,  which  in  process  of  time  almost  ban- 
ished the  true  religion,  or  at  least  very  much  ob- 
scured and  corrupted  it.     At  first  pilgrimages 


FOURTH    CENTURY.  61 

were  made  to  the  holy  land,  and  to  the  tombs  ol' 
the  martyrs,  as  though  holiness  were  to  be  obtained 
there ;  and  afterwards  portions  of  earth  were 
brought  from  those  venerated  places,  which  were 
regarded  as  a  most  powerful  protection  against  the 
assaults  of  evil  spirits,  and  were  bought  and  sold 
at  great  prices.  The  same  regard  was  paid,  and 
efficacy  ascribed,  to  their  temples,  to  water  conse- 
crated in  due  form,  and  to  the  images  of  holy  men, 
tnat  the  heathen  had  paid  to  their  temples,  statues, 
and  lustrations,  long  before.  Images,  however, 
were  as  yet  but  rare,  and  statues  did  not  exist. 
The  same  worship  began  now  to  be  paid  to  the 
martyrs,  which  the  pagans  had  paid  to  their  gods, 
which  were  only  deified  men.  From  these  speci- 
mens, we  may  readily  imagine  how  much  injury 
resulted  to  Christianity  from  the  peace  and  pros- 
perity procured  by  Constantine,  and  from  an  in- 
discreet eagerness  to  allure  the  pagans  to  embrace 
this  religion  by  conforming  to  their  rites  and  su- 
perstitions. Indeed  almost  every  error,  either  in 
doctrine  or  in  form,  may  be  traced  to  this  source , 
its  prototype  may  be  found  either  in  heathen  phi- 
losophy, or  in  the  rites  of  pagan  worship. 

Pious  frauds  were  now  very  common,  and  the 
doctrine  almost  publicly  adopted,  at  least  notori- 
ously acted  upon,  that  to  deceive  and  lie,  when 
religion  can  be  promoted  by  it,  is  a  virtue.  "  Ru- 
mours were  artfully  disseminated  of  prodigies  and 
wonders  to  be  seen  in  certain  edifices  and  places, 
(a  trick  before  this  time  practised  by  pagan  priests,) 
whereby  the  infatuated  populace  were  drawn  to- 
gether, and  the  stupidity  and  ignorance  of  those 
who  looked  upon  every  thing  new  and  unusual  as 
a  miracle,  were  often  wretchedly  imposed  upon. 
Graves  of  saints  and  martyrs  were  supposed  to  be 
6 


62  ECCLESIASTICAL    IIISTOUY. 

where  they  were  not ;  the  list  of  saints  was  en 
riched  with  lictitious  names;  and  even  robbers 
were  converted  into  martyrs.  Some  buried  blood- 
stained bones  in  retired  places,  and  then  gave  out 
that  they  had  been  informed  in  a  dream,  that  the 
corpse  of  some  friend  of  God  was  there  interred. 
Many,  especially  of  the  monks,  travelled  through 
the  different  provinces,  and  not  only  shamelessly 
carried  on  a  traffic  in  fictitious  relics,  but  also  de- 
ceived the  eyes  of  the  multitude  with  ludicrous 
combats  with  evil  spirits.  It  would  require  a  vol- 
ume to  detail  the  various  impositions  which  were, 
for  the  most  part,  successfully  practised  by  artful 
knaves,  after  genuine  piety  and  true  religion  were 
compelled  to  resign  their  dominion  in  a  great  mea- 
sure to  superstition." 

Many  laboured  earnestly  in  interpreting  the 
sacred  volume,  but  few  successfully.  Most  of  the 
interpreters  of  this  age  followed  Origen,  in  search- 
ing for  mysteries  and  allegories  in  the  Scriptures. 
Gregory  Nazianzen  among  the  Greeks,  and  Au- 
gustine among  the  Latins,  who  were  regarded  in 
the  subsequent  ages  as  the  only  patterns  worthy 
of  imitation,  may  be  fitly  styled,  next  to  Origen, 
the  parents  or  supporters  of  philosophical  or  scho- 
lastic theology.  Another  set  of  theologians  were 
the  mystics^  who  daily  increased  in  numbers,  and 
who  supposed  the  knowledge  of  divine  things  was 
to  be  acquired,  not  by  reasoning  about  them,  but 
by  contemplation,  and  by  recalling  the  mind  from 
its  converse  with  external  objects  to  a  concentra- 
tion on  itself.  The  controvertists  of  this  age,  in 
their  discussions,  resorted  to  new  sources  of  proof. 
The  truth  of  doctrines  was  proved  by  the  number 
of  martyrs  that  had  believed  so,  by  prodigies,  and 
by  the  confessions  of  devils,  that  is,  of  persons  in 


FOURTH    CENTURY.  63 

whose  bodies  some  demon  was  supposed  to  reside. 
The  doctrine  that  has  so  disgraced  the  church  in 
after  ages,  and  stained  her  garments  with  the  blood 
of  thousands,  was  approved  and  practised  upon  in 
this  century  ;  namely,  that  errors  in  religion,  when 
maintained  and  adhered  to  after  proper  admonition, 
ought  to  be  visited  with  penalties  and  punishments. 
This  doctrine  had  its  source  in  the  natural  cor- 
ruption of  the  human  heart.  When  a  religious 
system  is  adopted  and  upheld  by  pride  and  selfish- 
ness, backed  with  power,  the  result  will  be  the 
oppression  and  persecution  of  dissentients.  Hence, 
the  pagans,  while  in  power,  persecuted  the  Chris- 
tians ;  and  when  it  had  become  an  established 
practice  to  interfere,  in  this  manner,  with  liberty 
of  conscience,  it  ought  not  to  surprise  us,  to  find 
men  with  the  name,  but  without  the  spirit  of  real 
Christians,  pursuing  the  same  course,  and  even 
men  of  undoubted  piety  joining  with  them.  There 
are  few,  comparatively,  that  can  see  clearly  through 
the  mist  which  the  general  custom  and  ruling  spi- 
rit of  the  age  gather  round  them.  The  doctrine 
in  question,  however,  and  its  corresponding  prac- 
tice, are  diametrically  opposed  to  the  gospel  of 
Christ.  "  Who  art  thou,  that  judgest  another 
man's  servant  ?  To  his  own  master  he  standeth, 
or  falleth." 

Monks  who  professed  to  aim  at  a  higher  degree 
of  holiness  than  others,  were  greatly  increased  in 
this  century.  Anthony  was  the  first  who  collected 
them  into  a  community  in  Egypt,  and  regulated 
their  mode  of  living  by  fixed  rules.  Plis  example 
was  followed  by  others  in  Palestine,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia,  so  "  that  in  a  short  time  all  the  East 
swarmed  with  persons  who,  abandoning  the  occu- 
pations and  conveniences  of  life,  and  all  inter- 


64  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

course  with  society,  pined  away  amidst  various 
hardslii|)s,  hunger  and  sufierings,  in  order  to  attain 
to  a  more  close  communion  with  God  and  the  an- 
gels." This  spirit  also  soon  passed  into  the  West, 
and  jjrevailed  first  in  Italy  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  first  erected  monasteries 
in  Gaul,  and  so  popular  was  he  with  the  order, 
that  it  is  said  two  thousand  monks  assembled  at 
his  funeral.  From  thence  this  manner  of  life 
spread  through  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  But 
the  austerity  of  the  eastern  monks  was  said  to  be 
much  greater  than  that  of  the  western  ;  for  neither 
the  climate,  nor  the  bodily  constitution  and  habits 
of  the  people  in  western  Europe,  were  compatible 
with  the  rigid  abstemiousness  of  the  eastern  asce- 
tics. 

VIII.  This  age  was  fruitful  in  controversies 
amongst  Christians,  which  is  usually  the  case  in 
a  state  of  external  prosperity,  when  the  church 
partakes  largely  of  the  spirit  of  the  world.  In 
proportion  as  religion  becomes  low,  ana^-y  con- 
tention and  dispute  about  it,  rise  high.  Tlie  Me- 
letian  controversy,  which  at  first  was  little  more 
than  a  personal  quarrel  between  Peter,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  and  Meletius,  bishop  of  Lycopolis,  a 
town  of  upper  Egypt,  was  widened  and  aggravated 
by  heated  passions,  until  it  embraced  an  import- 
tant  article  of  faith,  viz.  the  sameness  in  substance, 
and  equality  in  perfections  and  glory,  of  the  di- 
vine persons,  and  produced  a  schism  that  existed 
in  the  following  century.  The  Eustathian  sect, 
so  called  from  Eustathius,  bishop  of  Sebaste  in 
Armenia,  its  founder,  are  said  to  have  condemned 
matrimony,  and  even  receiving  the  holy  supper 
at  the  hands  of  a  married  priest,  upon  pain  of 
forfeiting  salvation      They  forbade  eating  flesh, 


FOURTH    CENTURY.  05 

contemned  the  buildings  erected  for  public  wor- 
ship, and  held  their  meetings  in  private.  They 
allowed  a  woman  to  forsake  her  husband,  parents 
their  children,  children  their  parents,  and  servants 
their  masters,  on  pretence  of  devoting  themselves 
to  a  stricter  mode  of  life.  Aerius,  a  presbyter 
of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  and  suspected  rather  than 
proved,  to  have  been  a  semi-Arian,  maintained 
that  there  is  no  difference  between  bishop  and 
presbyter,  which  he  solidly  proved  by  passages 
in  Paul.  He  also  disapproved  of  prayers  for  the 
dead,  the  stated  fasts,  the  celebration  of  Easter, 
and  other  things  that  were  then  regarded  by  too 
many  as  constituting  the  very  essence  of  religion. 
His  aim  was,  it  would  seem,  to  reduce  religion  to 
its  original  simplicity.  There  were  some  others 
in  the  fourth  century  who  looked  with  disgust  up- 
on the  progress  of  error,  and  superstition,  and  op- 
posed the  general  current ;  but  they  received  as  the 
only  reward  of  their  labour,  the  brand  of  infamy. 
Eminent  among  these  was  Jovinian,  an  Italian 
monk,  who  taught  that  there  was  no  particular 
merit  in  celibacy,  macerating  the  body  by  fasting, 
&c.  for  which  he  was  condemned  by  a  council  at 
Milan,  A.  D.  390,  and  afterwards  banished  by  the 
emperor.  It  began  now  to  be  dangerous  to  main- 
tain the  truth.  The  controversy  concerning  Ori- 
gen  occupied  a  large  field,  in  this  century,  and 
was  sometimes  the  cause  of  quarrels  and  oppres- 
sion. The  Arians  laid  claim  to  him  as  having 
favoured  their  party  ;  and  this  being  believed  by 
some  of  the  orthodox,  brought  odium  on  his  wri- 
tings, and  on  all  who  ventured  to  defend  them. 

IX.  Ceremonies  were  greatly  multiplied  in  this 
century.     Christian  worship  began  now  to  differ 
very  little  from  the  idol  worship  of  the  Greeks  and 
6* 


66  ECCLESIASTICAL    lilSTOUY. 

Romans.  "  In  both  tliere  were  splendid  robes, 
niitrts,  tiarus,  wax-tapcrs,  crosiers,  processions, 
lustrations,  images,  golden  and  silver  vases,  and 
innumerable  other  things  alike."  Magnificent 
temples  were  erected,  adorned  with  pictures  and 
images,  very  similar  to  the  heathen  temples,  and 
were  consecrated  with  great  pomp,  and  with  rites 
borrowed  in  great  measure  from  the  ancient  laws 
of  the  Roman  pontiffs.  To  encourage  the  build- 
ing of  churches,  the  right  o^ patronage  was  allowed 
— ran  evil  that  has  existed  in  the  church  down  to 
the  present  day — that  is,  he  who  built  a  church, 
should  have  the  right  to  say  who  should  minister 
in  it.  This  also  seems  to  have  been  copied  from 
heathen  example.  Their  worship  consisted  in 
"  hymns,  prayers,  reading  the  holy  scriptures,  a 
discourse  to  the  people,  and  finally  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  supper.  But  these  exercises  were 
accompanied  with  various  ceremonies,  better  cal- 
culated to  please  the  eye,  than  to  excite  true  devo- 
tion." Ceremonies  varied,  however,  and  different 
forms  of  prayer  were  in  use  in  different  churches. 
After  the  manner  of  the  forum,  and  theatres,  the 
people  were  allowed,  in  their  public  assemblies,  to 
clap  and  applaud  their  preachers.  The  first  day 
of  the  week  was  required  by  a  law  of  Constantine 
(A.  D.  321,)  to  be  observed  more  sacredly  and 
generally  than  before,  as  a  day  of  rest ;  except 
that  country  people  were  still  permitted  to  sow 
their  fields  and  to  prop  their  vines,  when  the  season 
best  suited,  as  a  work  of  necessity.  Five  annual 
festivals  were  generally  observed  ;  viz :  in  com- 
memoration of  the  Saviour's  birtli^  of  his  death, 
of  his  resurrection^  his  ascension  to  heaven,  and 
the  descent  oftlie  Holy  Ghost. 

Great  efficacy  was  ascribed  to  fasting,  both  to 


FOURTH    CENTURY.  67 

repel  the  assaults  of  evil  spirits,  and  to  placate  the 
Deity.  The  fast  of  lent,  preceding  Easter,  was 
considered  the  most  sacred,  but  was  nut  yet  limited 
to  a  certain  number  of  days,  which  was  optional. 
Anciently,  they  who  fasted  abstained  entirely 
from  Ibod  and  drink,  but  in  this  age  it  began  to  be 
considered  sufficient  to  abstain  only  from  flesh 
and  wine.  Baptism  was  usually  administered 
"on  the  vigils  of  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  accom- 
panied with  lighted  wax  candles,  and  by  the 
bishop,  or  by  the  presbyters  whom  the  bishop 
commissioned  for  that  purpose.  In  some  places, 
salt,  a  symbol  of  purity  and  wisdom,  was  put  into 
the  mouth  of  the  baptized,  and  every  where  a 
double  anointing  was  used,  the  first  before,  and 
the  other  after  baptism.  After  being  baptized, 
the  persons  appeared  clad  in  white  gowns  during 
seven  days.  That  the  Lord's  supper  was  admin- 
istered twice  or  three  times  a  week,  (although  in 
some  places,  only  on  Sunday,)  to  all  who  assem- 
bled for  the  worship  of  God,  appears  from  innu- 
merable testimonies.  It  was  also  administered  at 
the  sepulchres  of  the  martyrs  and  at  funerals ; 
whence  arose,  afterwards,  the  masses  in  honour 
of  the  saints,  and  for  the  dead.  The  bread  and 
wine  were  now  every  where  elevated,  before  dis- 
tribution, so  that  they  might  be  seen  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  be  viewed  with  reverence ;  and  hence 
arose,  not  long  after,  the  adoration  of  the  sym- 
bols." 

The  remains  of  former  heresies  still  existed  in 
this  century,  especially  the  Manicheans.  This 
wide  spreading  pestilence,  although  opposed  by 
the  pens  of  their  ablest  doctors,  and  by  severe 
laws,  could  not  be  wholly  arrested.     In  order  to 


m 

68  KCCLEs.  ^VSTI(JAL    IIIaTOKY. 

evade    the    laws  enaclcd  against  them,  they  as^ 
sumed  various  names. 

X.  In  the  year  311  arose  the  sect  of  the  Dona- 
tists,  so  called  from  Donatus  their  leader.  This 
schism  had  its  rise  as  follows.  Mensurius,  the 
bishop  of  Carthage,  dying,  Csecilian,  the  arch- 
deacon, was  elected  to  the  vacant  chair,  by  the 
people  and  clergy  of  Africa  proper,  and  consecra- 
ted without  the  concurrence  of  the  Numidian 
bishops,  who  ought,  according  to  custom,  to  have 
been  present.  This  gave  great  offence  to  the  Nu- 
midians,  who  held  a  meeting,  deposed  Csecilian, 
and  in  his  room,  consecrated  Majorinus,  bishop 
of  Carthage.  Hence  the  Carthaginian  church 
was  divided  into  two  factions,  headed  by  two 
bishops.  This  schism  spread  over  all  Africa, 
most  cities  having  two  bishops,  one  taking  sides 
with  Csecilian,  the  other  with  Majorinus.  The 
Donatists  were  condemned  by  several  special 
councils,  held  by  order  of  the  emperor,  and  finally 
by  the  emperor  himself;  who,  provoked  by  their 
continued  contumacy  and  reproaches,  deprived 
them  of  their  churches,  sent  their  seditious  bishops 
into  banishment,  and  punished  some  of  them  with 
death.  This  produced  very  violent  tumults  and 
commotions  in  Africa.  Amongst  these  commo- 
tions arose  the  Circumcelliones,  so  called  because 
they  were  accustomed  to  hover  round  the  cellce,  or 
cottages  of  the  peasants,  without  any  fixed  habita- 
tions. They  were  "a  furious,  headlong,  sangui- 
nary set,  composed  of  the  peasantry  and  rustic 
populace,  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Donatists, 
defended  it  by  the  force  of  arms,  and  roaming 
through  the  province  of  Africa,  filled  it  with 
slaughter,  rapine   and   burnings,  and  committed 


FOURTH    CENTURY.  69 

the  most  atrocious  crimes  against  the  adverse 
party." 

It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  Donatist 
bishops,  especially  the  better  sort  of  them,  excited 
or  approved  the  violent  and  irregular  proceedings, 
which  brought  great  reproach  upon  their  cause. 
The  sect  was  greatly  weakened  toward  the  end 
of  the  century,  as  well  by  a  great  schism  that 
arose  among  themselves,  as  by  the  activity  and 
zeal  of  Augustine  against  them.  The  Donatists 
were  in  the  main  orthodox,  but  held  no  commu- 
nion with  any  not  of  their  party.  They  re-ordained 
and  re-baptized  such  as  came  over  to  them. 

XI.  "  Not  long  after  the  commencement  of  the 
Donatist  controversy,  or  in  the  year  317,  another 
storm  arose  in  Egypt,  more  pernicious,  and  of 
greater  consequence,  which  spread  its  ravages 
over  the  Christian  world.  The  ground  of  this 
contest  was  the  doctrine  of  three  persons  in  the 
Godhead ;  a  doctrine  which,  during  the  three 
preceding  centuries,  had  not  been  in  all  respects, 
defined."  This  was  called  the  Arian  heresy, 
from  Arius,  its  principal  supporter.  "  He  main- 
tained that  the  Son  is  totally  and  essentially  dis- 
tinct from  the  Father ;  that  he  was  only  the  first 
and  noblest  of  those  created  beings  whom  God  the 
Father  formed  out  of  nothing,  and  the  instrument 
which  the  Father  used  in  creating  this  material 
universe  ;  and  therefore,  that  he  was  inferior  to 
the  Father  both  in  nature  and  in  dignity."  Athan- 
asius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  distinguished  himself 
as  the  opposer  of  the  doctrines  of  Arius ;  and 
perhaps  was  the  means,  under  God,  of  saving  the 
church  from  the  ruin  of  that  overspreading  heresy. 
A  general  council  was  called  by  order  of  the  em- 
peror Constantino,  which  met  at  Nice,  in  Bithynia 


70  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

in  the  year  325,  in  order  to  settle  this  great  con- 
troversy. This  council,  reckoned  the  first  general 
council,  consisted  of  more  than  three  hundred 
bishops,  with  the  emperor  at  their  head,  who 
seems  to  have  presided.  "  In  this  council,  after 
various  altercations  and  conflicts  of  the  bishops, 
the  doctrine  of  Arius  was  condemned,  Christ  was 
pronounced  to  be  of  the  same  essence  with  the 
Father,  Arius  was  sent  into  exile  in  lUyricum, 
and  his  followers  were  compelled  to  assent  to  a 
creed  or  confession  of  faith,  composed  by  the 
council."  Some  years  after,  however,  through 
the  influence  of  Constantia,  the  emperor's  sister, 
and  an  Arian  presbyter  whom  she  recommended , 
to  him  at  her  death,  Constantine  was  led  to  believe 
that  Arius  had  been  wrongfully  condemned,  through 
personal  enmity,  and  he  recalled  him  from  his 
banishment.  This  was  like  to  produce  great  dis- 
turbances, when  x\rius  was  taken  off  by  a  very 
sudden  and  unaccountable  death,  which  was  as- 
cribed by  his  enemies  to  the  judgment  of  God. — 
His  party,  however,  continued  long  after  his 
death,  and  was  greatly  revived  and  strengthened 
under  Constantius,  one  of  the  three  sons  and  suc- 
cessors of  Constantine  the  Great.  The  Arians 
were  much  weakened  by  divisions  and  dissensions 
among  themselves.  These  divisions  were  numer- 
ous, but  the  principal  of  them  may  be  reduced  to 
three.  First,  the  genuine  Arians,  who  rejected  all 
new  modes  of  expression,  and  taught  explicitly 
that  the  Son  was  not  begotten  by  the  Father,  but 
created  out  of  nothing.  From  these  deviated  on 
one  side,  the  Senni-Arians,  who  held  that  the  Son 
was  of  like  essence  with  the  Father ;  and  on  the 
other  side,  the  Eunomians,  who  contended  that 
Christ    was   dissimilar,  both   in  essence,  and   in 


FIFTH    CENTVRV.  71 

Other  respects  from  the  Father.  Near  the  end  of 
[his  century,  Theodosius  the  Great  enacted  laws 
against  the  Arians,  and  caused  the  decisions  of 
the  Nicene  Council  to  triumph  every  where 
Many  other  heresies  of  less  note  arose  in  this  ceo 
tury,  which  I  forbear  to  mention. 


CENTURY  y. 

1.  General  interests  of  Christianity. — 2.  Learning. — 3.  Form 
and  government  of  the  Church. — 4.  Degeneracy  of  the 
clerg>'. — 5.  Monkery. — 6.  Writers. — 7.  Theology.— 8.  Super- 
stitious and  human  inventions. — 9.  Mystics. — 10.  Vigilan- 
tius. — 11.  The  Donatists. — 12.  Arians. — 13.  Nestorians. — 
14.  Eutychians. — 15.  Pelagians 

I.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  the  Ro- 
man Empire  was  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of 
which  embraced  the  eastern,  the  other  the  western 
provinces.  Arcadius,  the  emperor  of  the  East, 
resided  at  Constantinople.  Honorius,  who  gov- 
erned the  West,  lived  at  Ravenna,  in  Italy.  The 
Empire,  thus  divided  and  weakened,  and  frequently- 
disturbed  by  jealousies  and  dissensions  between 
the  two  rival  emperors,  was  subject  to  the  contin- 
ual inroads  and  depredations  of  the  northern  bar- 
barians. The  Goths  laid  waste  Italy  several  times, 
and  plundered  Rome  in  a  miserable  manner.  The 
fierce  and  warlike  people  of  Germany  overran  the 
fair  provinces  of  the  south,  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain, 
and  set  up  new  kingdoms  in  them.  Horde  after 
horde  came  down  from  the  prolific  north,  which 
has  been  called  the  birth  place  of  nations ;  and  stt 


72  KCCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

last,  in  the  year  476,  the  western  empire,  under 
Augustulus,  was  finally  overturned  by  Odoacer, 
the  chief  of  the  Heruli.  These  invaders  were 
afterwards,  in  their  turn,  vanquished  by  Theodo- 
ric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  at  the  instance  of  the 
emperor  of  the  East.  This  new  kingdom  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  was  therefore  established  in  Italy,  and 
under  various  fortunes,  continued  for  more  than 
half  a  century,  owning  some  allegiance  to  the 
Emperor  of  the  East,  but  in  fact,  independent. 
Amidst  these  wars,  and  incursions  of  the  barba- 
rians, Christianity  suffered  much.  There  was  not 
much  direct  persecution ;  for  the  object  of  these 
incursions  was  not  religion,  but  plunder,  and  to 
obtain  a  milder  climate  and  more  genial  soil.  Yet 
the  worshippers  of  idols,  who  were  still  numerous, 
ceased  not  to  use  every  means  in  their  power  to 
inflame  the  barbarians  against  the  Christians  ;  and 
in  Gaul  and  elsewhere,  the  Goths  and  Vandals 
are  said  to  have  put  multitudes  to  death. 

The  ancient  Britons,  no  longer  sustained  by  the 
Roman  power,  were  miserably  harassed  by  the 
Picts  and  Scots.  To  assist  them  against  these 
troublesome  neighbours,  they  called  over  the  An- 
glo-Saxons from  Germany  to  their  aid,  A.  D.  449. 
But  the  remedy  they  soon  found  to  be  worse  than 
the  disease.  These  foreign  auxiliaries  undertook 
to  subdue  the  people  whom  they  had  come  to 
assist.  This  produced  obstinate  and  bloody  wars 
between  them,  which  lasted  with  various  successes, 
for  one  hundred  and  thirty  years,  when  the 
Britons  were  compelled  finally  to  yield  up  their 
country  to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  retreat  to  Ba- 
tavia  and ,  Cambria,  the  modern  Holland  and 
Wales.  During  these  conflicts,  the  British  church 
was  in  a  deplorable  condition.     The  Anglo-Sax- 


FIFTH    CEIVTUKY.  73 

ons,  who  as  yet  worshipped  their  own  gods, 
although  they  did  not  directly  persecute  the 
Christians,  yet  showed  them  no  mercy,  and  put 
multitudes  of  them  to  death. 

"  In  Persia,  the  Christians  suffered  grievously 
in  consequence  of  the  rash  zeal  of  Abdas,  bishop 
of  Suza,  who  demolished  the  Pyrseum,  a  temple 
dedicated  to  fire.  For  being  commanded  by  the 
king  to  rebuild  it,  he  refused  to  comply  :  for  which 
he  was  put  to  death  in  the  year  414,  and  the 
churches  of  the  Christians  were  levelled  to  the 
ground."  Afterwards,  in  a  war  between  the  Per- 
sians and  Romans,  vast  multitudes  of  Christians 
were  put  to  death  with  cruel  tortures,  under  pre- 
tence that  they  were  friendly  to  the  Romans,  and 
wished  to  betray  their  country.  The  Jews,  also, 
many  of  whom  were  possessed  of  wealth  and  in- 
fluence, in  various  parts  of  the  East,  harassed 
and  oppressed  the  Christians,  by  all  means  in  their 
power. 

Christianity,  however,  continued  to  spread  and 
gain  influence.  In  the  East,  it  was  strongly  pro- 
tected by  law.  The  emperors  continued  their  ef- 
forts to  extirpate  what  still  remained  of  idolatry. 
Especially  Theodosius  the  younger,  who  reigned 
from  A.  D.  408  to  450,  enacted  various  laws  re- 
quiring the  idolatrous  temples  to  be  utterly  destroy- 
ed, or  to  be  dedicated  to  Christ  and  the  saints ; 
abrogating  the  pagan  ceremonies  and  rites  ;  and 
excluding  the  adherents  to  paganism  from  all  pub- 
lic offices.  The  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  of 
Libanus  and  Antiiibanus,  being  greatly  annoyed 
by  wild  beasts,  applied  to  the  famous  saint,  Simeon 
Stylites.  He  told  them  that  the  only  remedy  was 
to  forsake  their  old  religion,  and  embrace  Christ- 
ianity. These  mountaineers  obeyed  his  counsel 
7 


74  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

and  became  Christians  ;  and  it  is  saia  that  they 
saw  the  wild  beasts  quickly  forsake  their  coun- 
try. Many  Jews  in  the  island  of  Crete,  finding 
themselves  basely  deceived  and  deluded  by  one 
who  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah,  embraced  Christ- 
ianity. 

In  the  West,  amidst  the  disorder  and  confusion 
that  prevailed,  the  laws  against  idolatry,  and  hea- 
then practices,  were  less  strict.  The  Saturnalia, 
the  Lupercalia,  the  gladiatorial  shows,  and  other 
idolatrous  customs  were  observed  with  impunity, 
both  at  Rome,  and  in  the  provinces  ;  and  men  of 
the  highest  rank  and  authority  publicly  professed 
the  religion  of  their  ancestors.  The  advocates 
of  heathenism,  in  order  to  exasperate  the  people 
against  the  Christians,  renewed  the  old  complaint, 
that  Christianity  was  the  cause  of  the  multiplied 
calamities  of  the  times,  and  that  the  angry  gods 
had  sent  these  evils  upon  the  world,  in  revenge  for 
their  deserted  temples  and  neglected  worship.  This 
attack  was  repelled  by  Augustine  in  his  famous 
work,  De  Civitate  Dei.  Christianity,  however, 
still  prevailed  :  and  the  barbarous  tribes,  one  after 
another,  from  various  causes,  and  under  various 
influences,  were  brought  to  embrace  the  religion 
of  the  nations  which  they  had  conquered. 

Clovis,  or  Lewis,  king  of  the  Salii,  a  tribe  of 
Franks,  a  bold,  cruel,  and  haughty  prince,  extend- 
ed his  dominion  over  the  Gallic  provinces,  and 
founded  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.  This  prince, 
when  brought  into  circumstances  of  great  difficulty, 
influenced  by  his  wife,  made  a  vow,  that  if  he  ob- 
tained the  victory  over  his  enemies,  he  would  wor- 
ship Christ  as  his  God.  He  obtained  the  victory, 
and  kept  his  vow,  and  was  accordingly  baptized  at 
Rheims,  A.  D.  496.     It  was  in  the  year  432  that 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  75 

the  famous  St.  Patrick,  the  apostle  of  Ireland, 
sent  by  Ccelestine,  bishop  of  Rome,  commenced 
his  mission  amongst  that  barbarous  people.  His 
labours  are  said  to  have  been  abundantly  success- 
ful ;  but  it  may  be  more  than  doubted,  whether  all 
the  means  which  he  employed,  were  calculated  to 
produce  a  change  of  heart  in  his  converts.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  energy  and  cour» 
age  ;  he  had  acquired  considerable  knowledge  of 
men  and  things,  by  misfortunes  in  youth,  and  pro- 
longed studies  in  his  maturer  years  ;  he  had  to 
deal  with  a  bold  and  barbarous  people,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  ideas  and  maxims  of  that  age,  he  em- 
ployed such  means  as  were  most  likely  to  give 
him  influence,  and  lead  by  the  shortest  way  to  the 
end  in  view, — the  submission  of  the  Irish  to  the 
baptismal  rite,  and  a  conformity  of  outward  life 
to  such  Christian  instruction  as  he  could  give 
them.  From  the  writings  of  his  nephew,  Patrick 
the  younger,  it  appears,  says  Schlegel,  "  that  St. 
Patrick  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  men  of  his 
age  in  converting  the  heathen  ;  yet  that  he  used 
unsuitable  means  for  converting  them,  namely, 
fear,  threatenings,  and  fictitious  wonders  or  prodi» 
gies."  A  cave  on  a  small  island  of  Loch  Derg, 
county  of  Donegal,  is  still  shown  to  the  traveller, 
as  St.  Patrick's  Purgatory.  It  is  said,  that  he  gave 
out,  that  he  had  obtained  of  God,  by  his  earnest 
prayers,  that  the  torments  which  await  the  wicked 
in  a  future  life  should  here  be  exhibited,  in  order 
the  more  easily  to  recover  the  Irish  from  their  sin- 
ful state  and  pagan  errors.  Here  he  shut  up  gross 
transgressors,  who  were  exposed  to  distressing  ter- 
rors, and  reported  that  they  saw  infernal  spirits, 
and  other  terrifying  objects.  The  cave  had  cer- 
tain holes,  by  which  fire  might  be  thrown  into  it. 


7b  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

and  other  artifices  were  used,  calculated  to  impress 
the  minds  of  the  ignorant  with  what  was  then  sup- 
posed to  be  a  salutary  dread.  The  saint  is  still 
held  in  the  highest  veneration  by  the  Irish  Roman 
Catholics.  He  died,  as  some  say,  A.  D.  460,  in 
the  eighty-third  year  of  his  age,  while  others  place 
that  event  in  A.  D.  493.  He  founded  the  church 
of  Armagh,  which  became  the  metropolitan  See 
of  the  island. 

Respecting  the  causes  that  induced  all  the  pagan 
and  barbarous  nations  of  Europe  to  renounce  the 
religion  of  their  ancestors,  and  embrace  Christian- 
ity, Mosheim  justly  remarks  :  "  He  must  lack  dis- 
cernment, who  can  deny  that  the  labours,  the 
perils,  and  the  zeal  of  great  and  excellent  men, 
dispelled  the  clouds  of  darkness  from  the  minds 
of  many  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  he  must  be 
short-sighted,  and  not  well  versed  in  the  history 
of  this  age,  who  cannot  see,  that  the  fear  of  the 
vengeance  of  man,  the  hope  of  temporal  advanta- 
ges and  honours,  and  the  desire  of  obtaining  aid 
from  Christians  against  their  enemies,  were  preva- 
lent motives  with  many  to  abandon  their  gods. 
How  much  influence  miracles  may  have  had,  it  is 
difficult  to  say.  For  I  can  easily  believe  that  God 
was  sometimes  present  with  those  pious  and  holy 
men,  who  endeavoured  to  instil  the  principles  of 
true  religion  into  the  minds  of  barbarous  nations  ; 
and  yet  it  is  certain  that  the  greatest  part  of  the 
prodigies  of  this  age  are  very  suspicious." 

II.  Learning  in  this  century,  especially  in  the 
west,  began  very  much  to  decline.  The  barbari- 
ans that  overran  the  country,  held  letters  in  utter 
contempt,  and  placed  all  virtue  and  glory  in  arms, 
and  military  courage.  By  the  end  of  the  century 
therefore,  I'ttle  more  than  the  shadow  of  learning 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  77 

was  left,  in  the  seven  liberal  arts,  taught  in  the 
schools,  in  a  very  dry  and  jejune  manner.  In  the 
East,  schools  of  some  celebrity  were  kept  up  at 
Constantinople,  Athens,  and  Alexandria.  To- 
wards the  latter  end  of  this  century,  Aristotle,  af- 
terwards so  generally  adopted  in  the  Christian 
schools,  began  to  take  the  place  of  Plato,  who  had 
been  commonly  followed  heretofore.  One  reason 
of  this  was,  that  the  Dialectics  of  Aristotle  fur- 
nished the  means  for  those  minute  divisions,  distinc- 
tions and  definitions,  and  that  logical  and  meta- 
physical mode  of  reasoning,  which  Christian 
doctors  began  now  to  use  against  heretics,  and 
which  led  to  the  ridiculous  jargon  of  school  divin- 
ity in  after  ages. 

J II.  The  external  form  and  government  of  the 
cliurch  underwent  some  change.  "  The  power  of 
^the  bishops,  particularly  of  the  higher  orders,  was 
sometimes  augmented,  and  sometimes  diminished, 
according  as  times  and  circumstances  altered  ;  yet 
the  caprice  of  the  court,  and  political  considera- 
tions had  more  influence  in  this  matter,  than  any 
principles  of  ecclesiastical  law."  In  a  general 
council,  A.  D.  381,  the  bishop  of  Constantinople 
had  been  raised  in  rank  next  in  dignity  to  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  on  account  of  the  dignity  and  pre- 
rogatives of  the  city  where  he  presided.  This  in- 
flamed his  vanity,  and  set  him  upon  enlarging  his 
territories.  In  this  he  had  the  aid  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  emperor,  who  felt  himself  honoured, 
by  the  honours  and  prerogatives  of  his  bishop. 
His  jurisdiction  was  therefore  extended  from 
time  to  time  over  the  provinces  of  Asia,  Thrace, 
Pontus,  and  lUyricum.  And  in  the  year  451,  the 
council  of  Chalcedon,  called  the  fourth  general 
council,  decreed  that  the  bishop  of  new  Rome 
7* 


78  KCCLESIASTICAL    IIISTOKY. 

ought  to  enjoy  the  same  honours  and  prerogatives 
as  the  poniitt  of  ancient  Rome,  on  account  of 
the  equal  rank  and  dignity  of  the  two  cities.  This 
the  Roman  pontifls  highly  resented.  A  contest 
ensued  between  these  rival  prelates  which  was 
never  entirely  settled,  and  issued  finally  in  the  sep- 
aration of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  In  ihis 
century,  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  as  presiding 
over  the  mother  church,  first  founded  and  govern- 
ed by  the  apostles,  set  up  the  claim  of  indepen- 
dent bishop  ox  'patriarchy  and  as  such,  attempted 
to  enlarge  his  territory  by  wresting  Phenicia  and 
Arabia  from  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch.  This 
produced  a  dispute  between  the  bishops  of  Antioch 
and  Jerusalem  which  was  settled  by  the  council  of 
Chalcedon.  It  was  decreed  that  Phenicia  and 
Arabia  should  be  restored  to  the  See  of  Antioch, 
and  that  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem  should  enjoy  the^ 
title  of  patriarch  which  he  had  assumed.  There 
were  now,  therefore,  five  principal  bishops  over 
the  Christian  world,  distinguished  from  others  by 
the  title  o^ pal riarchs  ;  namely,  that  of  Rome,  of 
Antioch,  of  Alexandria,  of  Constantinople,  and  of 
Jerusalem. 

"  These  j9«?rz<2rcAs  had  great  prerogatives.  To 
them  belonged  the  consecration  of  the  bishops  of 
their  respective  provinces.  They  annually  con- 
voked councils  of  their  districts  to  regulate  and 
settle  ecclesiastical  affairs.  If  any  great  or  diffi- 
cult controversy  arose,  it  was  carried  before  the 
patriarch.  The  bishops  accused  of  any  offences, 
were  obliged  to  abide  by  his  decision.  And  finally 
to  provide  for  the  peace  and  good  order  of  the  re- 
mote provinces  of  their  patriarchates,  they  were 
allowed  to  place  over  them  their  own  legates  or 
vicars.'      Yet  there  were  churches,  both  in  the 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  79 

East,  and  in  the  West,  that  were  independent  of 
patriarchal  jurisdiction.  The  churches  of  Scot- 
land, Wp,l:-iSc,  and  Ireland  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence for  many  centuries.  The  church  of 
Carthage  was  also  independent. 

But  this  arrangement  of  ecclesiastical  powers 
was  far  from  producing  peace.  Endless  strifes 
and  jealousies  arose  between  the  rival  patriarchs 
themselves,  each  aiming  to  extend  the  prerogatives 
and  jurisdiction  of  his  own  see.  These  contests 
were  sometimes  settled  by  an  appeal  to  arms,  and 
gave  birth  to  bloody  and  destructive  wars.  The 
patriarchs  also  encroached  without  reserve  upon 
the  rights  of  their  bishops,  and  also  encouraged 
the  bishops  in  their  encroachments  upon  the  rights 
of  the  inferior  clergy,  and  the  people  under  them. 
They  sometimes  wilfully  excited  and  fomented 
disputes,  of  bishops  with  one  another,  and  with 
other  ministers  of  religion,  and  of  the  people  with 
the  clergy,  that  they  might  have  frequent  opportu- 
nities of  exercising  their  authority,  and  increasing 
their  influence.  They  also  contrived,  by  the  be- 
stowment  of  largesses,  to  draw  over  the  monks  to 
their  side — a  numerous  class,  beginning  to  acquire 
much  wealth  and  influence,  and  who  contributed, 
perhaps,  more  than  any  other  cause,  to  subvert 
the  ancient  discipline  of  the  church,  to  diminish 
the  authority  of  the  bishops  and  inferior  clergy, 
and  to  monopolize  all  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
dignitaries  of  the  church  by  whom  they  were 
patronized.  In  this  way  was  established  by  de- 
grees, a  kind  of  spiritual  bondage  and  tyranny, 
that  resulted  finally  in  the  establishment  of  the 
pontiff  of  Rome  as  the  universal  bishop  and  head 
of  the  church,  from  whom  all  power  and  authori- 
ty emanates.     For   in  all  their   contentions   for 


80  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

power  and  prerogative,  the  patriarch  of  Rome  was 
the  most  successlul.  And  no  one,  in  this  centu- 
ry, contended  more  vigorously  and  successfully 
in  their  cause  than  Leo,  commonly  surnamed  the 
Great. 

IV.  The  degeneracy  and  profligacy  of  the 
clergy  of  all  ranks  began  now  to  be  very  great. 
The  bishops,  especially  such  as  were  distinguished 
for  their  rank  and  honours,  affected  great  pomp 
and  splendour.  They  employed  various  adminis- 
trators to  manage  their  various  affairs,  and  formed 
around  themselves  a  kind  of  sacred  court.  Even 
presbyters,  did  not  blush  sometimes  to  claim  a 
superiority  to  the  highest  civil  magistrate.  Such 
pride  and  degeneracy  of  the  clergy  would  not 
have  been  tolerated,  had  not  the  people  been  sunk 
in  ignorance  and  superstition.  They  were  art- 
fully taught  to  regard  the  ministers  of  religion  as 
priests — a  kind  of  privileged  order,  clothed  with 
divine  power  and  authority,  to  whom  they  owed 
impHcit  obedience  and  submission,  but  whose  con- 
duct they  must  forbear  to  scrutinize  or  censure. 
And  perhaps  it  may  have  contributed  much  to 
establish  the  power  and  authority  of  the  priests 
and  their  metropolitan  bishop  of  Rome,  that  the 
warlike  tribes  of  Germany  that  conquered  the  Ro- 
mans, and  divided  their  government  among  them- 
selves, had  been  under  the  dominion  of  priests 
called  Druids,  whom  they  were  taught  highly  to 
reverence  and  respect.  These  Druids,  from  their 
greater  knowledge,  and  the  sacred  character  of 
their  office,  possessed  great  influence,  often  indeed, 
greater  than  that  of  their  civil  and  military  leaders ; 
the  arch-Dr-jid,  in  particular,  was  highly  venera- 
ted. When  they  embraced  Christianity,  therefore,, 
h  was  natural  that  they  should  regard  the  clergy, 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  81 

as  they  had  done  their  druidical  priests,  and  the 
bishop  of  Rome  as  the  chief  Druid. 

One  great  cause  of  the  degeneracy  of  the  clergy, 
was  the  careless  manner  of  admitting  persons  to 
that  sacred  office.  The  object  was  to  increase 
their  number.  Multitudes,  therefore,  of  ignorant 
men  were  received  indiscriminately  into  the  min- 
istry without  examination  ;  many  of  whom  only 
sought  thereby  to  obtain  a  living,  and  to  enjoy 
greater  ease  and  indulgence. 

V.  During  the  fifth  century,  the  passion  for  the 
monastic  life  was  very  great ;  and  monks  and 
nuns  became  extremely  numerous  in  the  West  as 
well  as  in  the  East.  Their  peculiar  mode  of  life 
procured  them  the  credit  of  great  sanctity.  Monks 
had  formerly  differed  nothing  from  the  common 
laity,  except  in  their  dress  and  manner  of  living  ; 
but  now  they  began  to  aspire  to  a  rank  among  the 
clergy.  And  such  was  the  wealth  and  influence 
which  they  soon  acquired,  that  they  were  ^le  to 
hold  an  honourable  rank  among  the  chief  support- 
ers and  pillars  of  the  church.  Bishops  and  pres- 
byters were  often  chosen  from  among  them. 
They  began  to  form  themselves  into  societies,  and 
live  in  communities  under  some  particular  regula- 
tion called  their  rule.  Each  community  had  its 
head  called  an  ahhot.,  whose  authority  was  absolute. 
These  societies  were  first  formed  by  St.  Anthony, 
in  the  preceding  century,  in  Egypt,  where  they 
had  become  so  numerous  as  to  turn  their  favourite 
desert  into  a  populous  country.  This  example 
was  followed  elsewhere,  and  soon  became  univer- 
sal. The  erection  of  edifices  for  their  accommo- 
dation, where  they  might  conveniently  live  to- 
gether and  serve  God,  came  now  to  be  regarded 
as  a  very  pious  and  charitable  act.     Monasteries 


82  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

were  erected  in  great  numbers  in  the  West,  first 
in  Italy,  afterwards  in  Gaul  and  elsewhere.  Dif- 
ferent monasteries  had  ditlerent  rules,  according 
to  the  will  of  its  founders  or  governors.  In  some, 
these  rules  were  written ;  in  others,  they  were 
guided  by  custom,  or  the  despotic  will  of  the  abbot. 
The  rules  chiefly  followed,  were  those  of  Augus- 
tine, Basil,  Anthony,  Athanasius,  and  Pachomius. 
Monks  as  yet,  however,  were  not  required  to  enter 
into  any  vows  of  perpetual  celibacy,  poverty  and 
obedience,  nor  of  adhering  for  ever  to  any  one 
rule  of  life  ;  but  every  one  was  free  to  continue  a 
monk  or  not,  and  to  pass  from  one  society  or  class 
of  monks  to  another.  Yet  even  in  this  age  it  ap- 
pears they  had  become  proverbial  for  their  licen- 
tiousness, and  in  many  places  are  said  to  have 
excited  dreadful  seditions. 

VI.  The  principal  ivriters  of  this  century,  in  the 
East,  were  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  who  was  an 
autho*!"  of  some  merit,  but  of  a  quarrelsome,  uneasy 
temper. — Theodoret,  bishop  of  Cyrus,  a  considera- 
ble city  of  Syria,  near  the  Euphrates,  wrote 
commentaries  on  a  large  part  of  the  Scriptures. 
His  learning  was  great,  his  genius  good,  and  his 
productions  among  the  best  of  that  age, — Isidorus, 
a  monk  of  great  austerity  in  his  mode  of  living, 
resided  in  a  monastery  near  Pelusium,  in  Egypt. 
His  writings  consist  of  short  epistles  to  the  num- 
ber of  two  thousand  and  thirteen,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  expound  Scripture,  and  they  are  not 
without  merit. — Among  the  writers  of  the  West, 
the  first  place  is  due  to  Leo  I.,  surnamed  the  Great. 
He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  talents,  a  good 
writer,  an  indefatigable  bishop,  but  immoderately 
devoted  to  the  extension  of  the  limits  of  his  power. 
It  has  been  said  of  him,  that  he  possessed  every 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  83 

virtue  compatible  with  a  boundless  ambition.  He 
was  bishop  of  Rome  from  A.  D.  440  to  461. — 
Paul  Orosius,  a  presbyter  of  Tarragona,  in 
Spain,  wrote  a  history  with  a  view  to  confute  the 
charge  that  Christianity  was  the  cause  of  the 
troubles  that  then  afflicted  the  empire,  showing 
that  such  troubles,  or  greater,  had  existed  before 
Christianity  was  known.  He  wrote  also  against 
the  Pelagians  and  Priscillianists. — John  Cassian 
devoted  himself  early  to  a  monastic  life.  After 
living  at  several  monasteries  in  the  East,  he  came 
finally  (A.  D.  410)  to  Marseilles,  in  France, 
where  he  built  two  monasteries,  one  for  males,  and 
one  for  females ;  and  afterwards  devoted  himself 
to  instructing  the  Gauls  in  the  mode  of  living 
pursued  by  the  monks  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  He 
was  a  Semi-Pelagian,  without  learning,  and  su- 
perstitious ;  but  active,  pious,  and  sincere. — Eu- 
cherius,  of  Lyons,  some  time  a  monk,  but  after- 
wards married ;  he  was  a  bishop  of  Lyons  from 
A.  D.  434  to  454.  Peter,  bishop  of  Ravenna, 
surnamed  Chrysologus,  on  account  of  his  elo- 
quence.— Salvian,  an  eloquent,  but  gloomy  and 
austere  writer. — Prosper,  of  Aquitain,  and  Marius 
Mercator,  both  active  defenders  of  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin,  predestination,  and  free  grace, 
against  the  Pelagians. — Vincent,  of  Lerins,  Sido- 
nius,  x^pollinaris,  Arnobius  junior,  and  many 
others  of  less  celebrity,  lived  in  this  century. 

VII.  The  7%eo/og7/ of  the  fifth  century  partook 
very  much  of  the  spirit  of  the  age.  The  simplicity 
of  doctrine  and  belief  that  characterized  the  purer 
ages  of  the  church  had  passed  away.  Human 
reason,  and  human  authority  had,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, usurped  the  place  that  belongs  simply  to  the 
revealed  word  of  God.     It  was  an  asje  of  debate 


84  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

and  contention,  and  many  were  the  metaphysica. 
definitions,  incomprehensible  distinctions,  and  am- 
biguous terms  that  were  introduced.  Hence 
arose  abundant  matter  for  difficulties,  contentions 
and  animosities,  which  flowed  down  to  after  ages. 
Each  party  assumed  some  test  word  of  its  own ; 
and  not  unfrequently,  in  avoiding  one  extreme  of 
error,  ran  into  the  opposite,  not  less  dangerous. 
In  imitation  of  the  Roman  courts,  where  difficult 
and  doubtful  points  of  law  were  decided  according 
to  the  opinions  of  certain  ancient  jurists ;  so  dis- 
puted points  in  religion  were  settled  by  the  opinion 
of  the  majority  of  the  most  learned  and  distin- 
guished doctors  of  former  times.  This  led  to  the 
production  of  many  spurious  works  under  the 
authority  of  great  names,  in  order  that  an  opinion 
might  be  sustained  by  the  greater  number  of  dis- 
tinguished authors.  The  writings  of  this  age  are 
chiefly  controversial.  Comparatively  few  under- 
took to  expound  the  Scriptures  ;  and  of  those  who 
did,  the  greater  part  followed  Origen  in  despising 
the  genuine  and  obvious  meaning  of  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  and  searching  after  abstruse  senses,  or 
what  the  Latins  of  this  age  called  mysteries,  in 
the  plainest  passages  of  the  Bible.  The  practical 
writings  are  strongly  tainted  with  the  monastic 
spirit. 

VIII.  The  superstitious  and  human  inventions 
by  which  religion  had  before  been  very  much  de- 
formed, were  now  greatly  augmented.  Prayers 
were  offered  to  departed  saints  by  multitudes  ;  nor 
does  it  seem  that  any  opposed  this  absurd  devo- 
tion, or  even  agitated  the  question,  afterwards 
much  discussed,  viz :  in  what  way  these  prayers 
could  be  heard  by  the  inhabitants  of  heaven. 
They  supposed  that  the  souls  of  the  departed  were 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  85 

not  so  confined  to  their  celestial  mansions,  but 
that  they  might  frequently  visit  our  earth  ;  that 
they  were  much  attached  to  the  places  where  their 
bodies  were  buried,  and  frequently  visited  them. 
This  opinion,  derived  from  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, drew  great  multitudes  of  supplicants  to  the 
sepulchres  of  the  saints.  The  images  of  those 
who  were  held  in  great  repute  for  sanctity  while 
on  earth,  were  now  honoured,  in  several  places, 
with  extraordinary  devotion :  and  there  were 
those  who  believed  (what  pagan  priests  had  taught 
respecting  the  statues  of  Jupiter  and  Mercury,) 
that  those  inhabitants  of  heaven  kindly  afforded 
their  presence  in  these  their  images.  The  bones 
of  martyrs,  and  the  sign  of  the  cross,  were  thought 
to  be  most  efficacious  against  the  assaults  of  de- 
mons, and  all  other  calamities ;  and  to  have  the 
power  of  healing  diseases  of  both  body  and  mind. 
The  superstitious  services  paid  to  the  souls  of  the 
dead,  the  multiplication,  and  extravagant  venera- 
tion of  temples,  chapels,  and  altars,  and  many 
other  like  things,  are  full  proof  of  a  very  degene- 
rate state  of  piety.  Holy  pilgrimages  were  some- 
times carried  to  a  ridiculous  extreme.  Some  tra- 
velled quite  to  Arabia,  in  order  to  see  the  dunghill 
on  which  pious  Job  sat,  and  to  kiss  the  ground 
that  had  absorbed  his  precious  blood.  "  The  dung- 
hill of  Job,  says  Chrysostom,  is  more  venerable 
than  the  throne  of  a  king."  No  one  objected  iii 
those  times,  that  Christians  should  entertain  the 
notions  of  their  heathen  ancestors,  respecting  the 
soul,  heroes,  demons,  temples  and  images.  No 
one  proposed  entirely  to  abolish  the  ancient  pagan 
institutions,  but  only  to  modify  them  somewhat, 
purify  them,  and  adapt  them  to  Christian  doctrine 
and  worship  ;  it  was  impossible,  therefore,  that  the 
8 


80  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

religion  and  worship  of  Christians  should  not  in 
this  way  become  corrupted.  The  doctrine  of  the 
purification  of  souls  after  death,  by  means  of  some 
sort  of  fire,  which  afterwards  became  so  great  a 
source  of  wealth  to  the  clergy,  obtained  in  this 
age,  a  fuller  development  and  greater  influence. 

The  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  church,  in  this 
century,  were  greatly  multiplied.  Everything  was 
adapted  to  show  and  splendour.  The  magnifi- 
cence of  the  temples  had  no  bounds.  Splendid 
images  were  placed  in  them  ;  and  among  these 
the  Virgin  Mary,  with  the  infant  in  her  arms,  held 
the  most  conspicuous  place.  Altars  and  reposito- 
ries for  relics,  were,  if  possible,  made  of  silver. 
Many  ornaments  were  added  to  the  priestly  gar- 
ments, to  increase  the  veneration  of  the  people  for 
the  clerical  order.  In  some  places,  singing  the 
praises  of  God  was  kept  up  continually,  day  and 
night ;  one  company  succeeding  another  in  this 
exercise  without  intermission.  On  account  of  the 
abuses  to  which  they  had  led,  the  agapae,  or  love- 
feasts,  were  abolished.  Private,  auricular  confes- 
sion, to  a  priest,  instead  of  public  confession,  which 
had  before  been  practised,  was  first  permitted  by 
Leo  the  Great,  about  the  middle  of  this  century. 

IX.  It  is  wonderful  to  see  to  what  extreme  rigour 
of  bodily  mortification  and  ioviuve^lhe  mystics  of 
this  century,  who  pretended  to  be  more  perfect 
than  other  Christians,  subjected  themselves,  in  or- 
der to  appease  the  Deity,  and  to  deliver  the  celes- 
tial spirit  from  the  bondage  of  this  mortal  body. 
"  To  live  among  wild  beasts — nay  in  the  manner 
of  these  beasts,  roam  about  like  madmen,  in  desert 
places,  and  without  garments  ;  to  feed  their  ema- 
ciated bodies  with  hay  and  grass  ;  to  shun  the 
converse  and  the  sight  of  men  ;  to  stand  motion- 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  87 

less  on  certain  places,  for  many  years,  exposed  to 
the  weather  ;  to  shut  themselves  up  in  confined 
cabins,  till  life  ended  ; — this  was  accounted  piety  ; 
this,  the  true  method  of  eliciting  the  spark  of 
Deity  from  the  secret  recesses  of  the  soul." 

Among  this  class  of  fanatics,  none  obtained 
greater  celebrity  than  the  Stylites^  or  pillar-saints  ; 
who  stood  on  the  tops  of  lofty  columns,  for  many 
years,  or  to  the  end  of  life,  to  the  great  astonish- 
ment and  admiration  of  the  ignorant  multitude. 
The  author  of  this  singular  institution  in  this  centu- 
ry, was  Simeon,  a  Syrian,  commonly  called  Sime- 
on Stylites.  As  a  matter  of  curiosity,  and  illus- 
trative of  the  superstition  and  stupid  credulity  of 
the  age,  I  must  transcribe  the  history  of  Simeon, 
as  it  is  given  by  the  translator  of  Mosheim. 

"  This  Simeon,  we  are  told,  was  born  at  Sisan, 
in  Syria,  about  A.  D.  300.  At  the  age  of  thirteen, 
while  attending  his  father's  sheep,  he  heard  a  pub- 
lic exposition  of  Luke  vi.  21-^25,  (^Blessed  are 
ye  that  weep  now,  ^c.  But  wo  unto  you  that 
laugh  now,  &c.,)  which  determined  him  to  become 
a  monk.  Having  therefore  passed  a  novitiate  of 
two  years,  he  removed  to  a  monastery  near  An- 
tioch,  where  he  lived  ten  years.  Here  his  abstin- 
ence and  his  voluntary  mortifications  were  so  ex- 
cessive as  to  draw  on  him  censure  from  the  other 
monks.  He  once  swathed  himself  from  his  loins 
to  his  neck,  with  a  rigid  well-rope  of*  palm,  during 
ten  days,  which  caused  his  whole  body  to  fester 
and  discharge  blood.  Being  expelled  the  monas- 
tery for  such  austerities,  he  retired  to  the  adjacent 
mountain,  and  let  himself  down  into  a  dry  cave. 
After  five  days  the  repenting  monks  sought  him 
out,  drew  him  forth  from  the  cavern,  and  restor- 
ed him  to  their  fellowship.     But  not  long  after,  he 


88  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

retired  to  a  little  cell,  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain 
near  Antiocli,  and  there  immured  himself  three 
years.  During  this  period,  having  caused  his  den 
to  be  stopped  up  with  earth,  he  remained  buried 
forty  days,  without  eating  or  drinking,  and  when 
disinterred,  was  found  nearly  dead.  So  pleased 
was  lie  with  this  experiment,  that  he  afterwards 
kept  such  a  fast  annually  as  long  as  he  lived. 
Next,  he  removed  to  the  top  of  the  mountain, 
where  he  chained  himself  to  a  rock  for  several 
years.  His  fame  had  now  become  very  great : 
and  crowds  of  admiring  visiters,  of  all  ranks  and 
characters,  thronged  around  him.  He  instructed 
them,  healed  their  diseases,  and  converted  heretics, 
pagans,  and  Jews,  in  great  numbers.  Incommod- 
ed by  the  pressure  of  the  crowd,  he  erected  a  pil- 
lar, on  which  he  might  stand,  elevated  at  first  six 
cubits,  then  twelve,  twenty-two,  thirty-six,  and  at 
last  forty  cubits.  The  top  of  the  pillar  was  three 
feet  in  diameter,  and  surrounded  with  a  balustrade. 
Here  he  stood,  day  and  night,  and  in  all  weathers. 
Through  the  night,  and  until  9  o'clock  A.  M.  he 
was  continually  in  prayer,  often  spreading  forth 
his  hands,  and  bowing  so  low  that  his  forehead 
touched  his  toes.  A  bystander  once  attempted  to 
count  the  number  of  these  successive  prostrations, 
and  he  counted  till  they  amounted  to  twelve  hun- 
dred and  forty- four.  At  9  o'clock  A.  M.  he  be- 
gan to  address  the  admiring  crowd  below,  to  hear 
and  answer  their  questions,  to  send  messages  and 
write  letters,  &c.,  for  he  took  concern  in  the  wel- 
fore  of  all  the  churches,  and  corresponded  with 
bishops,  and  even  with  emperors.  Towards  even- 
ing, he  suspended  his  intercourse  with  this  world ; 
and  betook  himself  again  to  converse  with  God, 
till  the  following  day.     He  generally  ate  but  once 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  89 

a  week,  never  slept,  wore  a  long  sheepskin  robe, 
and  a  cap  of  the  same.  His  beard  was  very  long, 
and  his  frame  extremely  emaciated.  In  this  man- 
ner he  is  reported  to  have  spent  thirty-seven  years  ; 
and  at  last,  in  his  sixty-ninth  year,  to  have  expir- 
ed unobserved,  in  a  praying  attitude,  in  which  no 
one  ventured  to  disturb  him  till  after  three  days  ; 
when  Anthony,  his  disciple  and  biographer,  mount- 
ing the  pillar,  found  that  his  spirit  was  departed, 
and  his  holy  body  was  emitting  a  delightful  odour. 
His  remains  were  borne  in  great  pomp  to  Antioch, 
in  order  to  be  the  safeguard  of  that  unwalled  town, 
and  innumerable  miracles  were  performed  at  his 
shrine.  His  pillar  also  was  so  venerated,  that  it 
was  literally  inclosed  with  chapels  and  monaste- 
ries, for  some  ages.  Simeon  was  so  averse  from 
women,  that  he  never  allowed  one  to  come 
within  the  sacred  precincts  of  his  pillar.  Even  his 
own  mother  was  debarred  this  privilege,  till  after 
her  death,  when  her  corpse  was  brought  to  him, 
and  he  now  restored  her  to  life,  for  a  short  time, 
that  she  might  see  and  converse  with  him  a  little, 
before  she  ascended  to  heaven. — Such  is  the  story 
gravely  told  us  by  the  greatest  writers  of  that  age, 
and  as  gravely  repeated  in  modern  times,  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  historians." 

We  are  told  that  many  in  Syria  and  Palestine, 
followed  the  example  of  Simeon,  though  none  fully 
equalled  him  ;  and  that  this  stupid  form  of  reli- 
gion continued  in  the  East,  down  »to  the  twelfth 
century,  when  it  was  finally  abolished.  The 
Latins,  however,  did  not  follow  the  East  in  this 
matter ;  and  when  one  attempted  it  in  the  German 
territory  of  Treves,  the  neighbouring  bishops  had 
his  pillar  pulled  down  and  prevented  him.  But 
the  general  sentiment  of  this  age  placed  much 
8* 


00  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

greater  honour  upon  the  external  signs  of  religion, 
and  bodily  exercises,  than  upon  real  holiness, 
which  has  its  seat  in  the  soul.  "  According  to 
the  sentiments  of  Salvian  and  others,"  says  Mos- 
heim,  "  no  one  can  become  truly  and  perfectly 
holy,  unless  he  abandons  altogether  his  property 
and  honours,  contemns  matrimony,  banishes  all 
hilarity  from  his  mind,  and  subjects  his  body  to  a 
variety  of  mortifications  and  painful  sensations. 
As  there  were  few  who  could  bear  the  severity  of 
these  rules,  the  veneration  of  those  senseless  or 
fanatical  persons,  those  religious  maniacs,  to  whose 
temperament  these  rules  were  adapted,  increased 
marvellously  ;  and  saints  sprung  up  like  mush- 
rooms." 

X.  There  were  some  Cew  who  dared  to  oppose 
the  growing  superstition  of  the  age,  but  they  were 
silenced  by  others,  who  were  more  numerous,  in 
greater  reputation,  and  possessed  of  greater  in- 
fluence. "  An  example  we  have  in  Vigilantius,  a 
presbyter  of  Gallic  extract,  but  resident  in  Spain*, 
a  learned  and  eloquent  man.  After  a  journey  to 
Palestine  and  Egypt,  returning  home  near  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century,  he  issued  several  tracts, 
in  which  he  taught  and  inculcated  many  things 
contrary  to  the  opinions  of  the  age.  Among  other 
things,  he  denied,  that  the  tombs  and  bones  of  mar- 
tyrs were  worthy  of  any  religious  worship  ;  and 
therefore,  he  censured  pilgrimages,  undertaken  to 
places  accounted  sacred  ;  he  ridiculed  the  mira- 
cles which  were  said  to  take  place  in  the  temples 
consecrated  to  the  martyrs  ;  and  condemned  the 
practice  of  keeping  vigils  in  these  temples  ;  he  said 
that  the  burning  of  wax  candles  in  the  day  time 
at  the  sepulchres  of  the  martyrs,  was  imprudent- 
ly borrowed  by  Christians,  from  the  ancient  super- 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  91 

stition  of  the  pagans  :  he  maintained,  that  prayers 
addressed  to  departed  saints  were  fruitless  :  he 
treated  with  contempt  the  prevailing  fasts,  the  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy,  and  the  monastic  life  :  and  he 
maintained  that  such  as  distributed  all  their  goods 
among  the  poor,  in  order  to  live  in  voluntary  pover- 
ty, and  such  as  sent  portions  of  their  property  to 
Jerusalem,  did  not  perform  an  act  which  was  pleas- 
ing and  acceptable  to  God.  These  sentiments 
were  not  offensive  to  several  of  the  Gallic  and 
Spanish  bishops.  But  the  most  renowned  monk 
of  that  age,  Jerome,  attacked  this  bold  religious 
reformer  with  so  much  acrimony,  that  he  readily 
saw  he  must  be  silent,  if  he  would  regard  his  life 
and  safety." 

XI.  The  schisms  and  heresies  of  this  century 
might  occupy  a  large  space,  but  I  will  endeavour 
to  present  them  with  as  much  brevity  as  possible. 
The  Do?iatists  were  still  very  numerous  and  very 
troublesome  in  Africa.  As  yet,  they  had  not  been 
molested  with  civil  pains  and  penalties  ;  but  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century,  the  Catholic  bishops, 
with  Augustine  at  their  head,  procured  from  the 
Emperor  Honorius  an  edict  compelling  them  to  re- 
turn to  the  bosom  of  the  church,  under  penalty  of 
fines,  banishment,  confiscation  of  goods,  and  even 
death  for  the  more  obstinate  and  contumacious. 
Under  the  influence  of  this  law,  many  submitted 
and  returned  to  the  church.  Some  escaped  by 
flight,  others  by  a  voluntary  death.  The  Circum- 
cellioncs^  a  kind  of  fanatic  soldiers  of  this  party, 
escaped  by  travelling  up  and  down  the  province, 
with  arms  and  violence,  every  where  venting  their 
rage.  These  measures  inflicted  a  stroke  upon  this 
numerous  and  violent  sect,  from  which  it  never 
recovered,  although  it   continued   to   exist   long 


92  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORJT. 

afterwards,  and  even  revived,  in  some  measure, 
under  the  government  ot"  the  Vandals. 

In  the  case  of  the  Donatists,  we  see  some  of  the 
effects  naturally  resulting  from  the  policy  of  Con- 
stantine,  and  his  successors,  in  bringing  the  church 
into  subjection,  in  its  external  interests,  to  the  state. 
The  pagan  emperors  held  the  name  and  office  of 
Poiilifex  Maximus  ;  the  Christian  emperors  drop- 
ped the  name,  but  exercised  the  power.  Hence, 
uniformity,  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  was  not  left  to 
result  from  the  union  of  mind  and  heart,  produced 
by  faith  and  love ;  but  was  prescribed  by  imperial 
edicts,  and  enforced  by  civil  penalties.  The  Donat- 
ists were  doubtless  wrong  in  some  things,  and  too 
prone,  with  the  characteristic  excitability  of  Afri- 
cans, to  be  hurried  away  by  their  passions.  They 
were  also  unfortunate  in  having  the  sinistrous 
friendship,  and  reputed  alliance  of  the  vagabond 
Circumcelliones.  But  if  they  had  been  left  to  lib- 
erty of  conscience,  if  they  had  not  been  coerced 
by  the  civil  authority,  at  the  instance  of  the  estab- 
lished church,  and  if  the  violations  of  law  or  order, 
committed  by  individuals,  or  bodies  of  rioters,  had 
been  punished  as  crimes  against  the  state,  without 
imputing  them  to  the  Donatists,  as  a  religious  sect ; 
their  history,  it  may  be  believed,  if  it  had  at  all 
come  down  to  us,  would  have  been  that  of  a  re- 
spectable denomination  of  Christians,  who,  while 
they  held  the  common  faith,  had  some  erroneous 
views  of  the  constitution  of  the  church,  were  too 
rigorous  in  discipline,  and  censurably  defective  in 
Christian  charity.  It  is  an  unhappy  thing  for  any 
body  of  men  to  have  their  principles  and  conduct 
described,  and  their  character  transmitted  to.  pos- 
terity, only  by  the  pens  of  their  enemies. 

XII.  The  Arians,  oppressed  and  persecuted  as 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  93 

they  were  by  the  orthodox,  took  refuge  among  the 
barbarians  -that  had  embraced  Christianity,  and 
found  there  a  safe  retreat.  The  Goths,  the  Heruli, 
the  Suevi,  the  Vandals,  and  the  Burgundians,  em- 
braced  the  Arian  creed,  and  in  their  turn,  persecu- 
ted the  orthodox.  Especially  "  the  Vandals,  who 
had  established  their  kingdom  in  Africa,  surpassed 
all  the  rest  in  cruelty  and  injustice.  At  first  Gen- 
seric  their  king,  and  then  Huneric  his  son,  demol- 
ished the  temples  of  such  Christians  as  maintain- 
ed the  Divinity  of  the  Saviour,  sent  their  bishops 
into  exile,  mutilated  many  of  the  more  firm  and 
decided,  and  tortured  them  in  various  ways.  And 
they  expressly  stated  that  they  were  authorized  to 
do  so,  by  the  example  of  the  emperors,  who  had 
enacted  similar  laws  against  the  Donatists  in  Afri- 
ca, the  Arians,  and  others  who  dissented  from 
them  in  religion.  During  this  African  persecution, 
God  himself  is  said  to  have  confuted  the  Arians 
by  a  great  miracle,  causing  by  his  almighty  pow- 
er, the  persons  whose  tongues  had  been  cut  out  by 
order  of  the  tyrants,  to  speak  distinctly  notwith- 
standing, and  to  proclaim  the  glory  and  the  praises 
of  Christ.  The  fact  itself,  no  one  can  well  deny, 
for  it  rests  on  powerful  testimony  ;  but  whether 
there  was  anything  supernatural  in  it,  may  be 
questioned. 

XIII.  About  the  year  430,  the  sect  of  the  Nes- 
torians  arose,  so  called  from  Nestorius,  a  Syrian, 
bishop  of  Constantinople.  This  produced  a  most 
lamentable  schism  in  the  church,  upon  a  subject 
of  very  inferior  and  doubtful  character,  which  has 
existed  down  to  the  present  day.  The  Nestorians, 
as  a  distinct  sect,  are  still  numerous  in  the  East. 
The  dispute  seems  first  to  have  arisen  about  the 
use  of  the  word  Qcotokos^  (mother  of  Goa)  applied 


94  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

to  the  Virgin  Mary.  In  their  opposition  to  the 
Arians,  this  word  had  come  into  very  common  use ; 
and  with  some,  was  a  favourite  expression.  This 
was  the  case  particularly  with  the  ApoUinarists  ; 
a  party,  that  in  shunning  Arianism,  had  struck 
upon  the  opposite  rock ;  and,  in  order  to  maintain 
the  proper  Divinity  of  Christ,  denied  to  him  proper 
humanity.  They  held  that  Christ  assumed  only 
a  human  body,  endowed  with  a  sentient  soul,  but 
not  possessed  of  intellect ;  and  that  the  Divine  na- 
ture in  Christ  did  the  otRce  of  a  rational  soul,  or 
mind.  This  doctrine,  Nestorius  and  others  oppos- 
ed. They  maintained  "  that  in  Christ  there  were 
not  only  two  natures,  but  two  persons,  or  hypos- 
tases ;  of  which  the  one  was  Divine,  even  the 
eternal  Word  ;  and  the  other,  which  was  huma7i^ 
was  the  man  Jesus ;  that  these  two  persons  had 
only  one  aspect  ;  that  the  union  between  the  Son 
of  God,  and  the  son  of  man,  was  formed  in  the 
moment  of  the  virgin's  conception,  and  was  never 
to  be  dissolved  ;  that  it  was  not,  however,  a  union 
of  natures,  or  of  persons,  but  only  of  will  and  af- 
fection ;  that  Christ  was  therefore  to  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  God,  who  dwelt  in  him  as  in 
his  temple  ;  and  that  Mary  was  to  be  called  the 
mother  of  Christ,  but  not  the  mother  of  God." 

Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  a  man  of  a  most 
restless  and  arrogant  spirit,  and  jealous  of  the 
growing  power  and  authority  of  the  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  immediately  made  opposition,  con- 
demned the  doctrine  of  Nestorius,  and  required 
him  to  recant.  This  he  refused  to  do  ;  whereupon 
Cyril  assembled  a  council  at  Alexandria,  (having 
first  consulted  with  Celestine,  bishop  of  Rome, 
whom  he  had  enlisted  in  his  cause,)  and  pronoun- 
ced twelve  anathemas  against  Nestorius,  who  find- 


FIFTH    CF.XTURY.  95 

ing  himself  condemned  for  blasphemy  against 
Christ,  returned  as  many  anathemas  against  Cyril ; 
charging  him  with  the  Apollinarian  doctrine,  of 
confounding  the  two  natures  of  Christ.  This  led 
to  the  calling  of  a  general  council,  at  Ephesus, 
A.  D.  431,  called  the  third  general  council.  In 
this  council  Cyril  presided  ;  and  from  the  history 
of  it,  it  seems  to  have  been  any  thing  else,  rather 
than  an  infallible  council,  or  even  a  regularly  con- 
ducted deliberative  body.  Cyril  was  anxious  to 
have  the  case  decided,  before  John,  bishop  of  Anti- 
och,  and  the  other  bishops  of  the  East,  whom  he 
suspected  of  being  friendly  to  Nestorius,  should 
arrive.  This,  as  well  as  the  presiding  of  Cyril, 
who  was  his  enemy  and  prosecutor  in  this  matter, 
Nestorius  maintained  was  unfair  and  unjust ;  and 
therefore  when  summoned  to  trial,  he  refused  to 
appear.  "  But  Cyril,  pressing  the  business  for- 
ward, without  a  hearing  of  the  cause,  and  a  great 
part  of  the  bishops  being  absent,  Nestorius,  whom 
the  council  compared  with  Judas,  the  betrayer  of 
the  Saviour,  was  condemned  as  guilty  of  blas- 
phemy, deprived  of  his  office,  and  sent  into  ban- 
ishment, where  he  closed  his  days."  The  doc- 
trine established  by  the  council,  and  which  has 
generally  been  received  by  the  church  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  was — that  Christ  consists  of  one  Divine 
person,  yet  of  two  natures,  most  closely  united, 
but  not  mixed  or  confounded.  This  decision,  how- 
ever,  did  not  end  the  dispute,  which  continued  to 
agitate  the  church  for  ages  after. 

XIV.  But  it  was  in  that  day,  as  it  is  in  this,  that 
disputants  almost  uniformly  ran  into  opposite  ex- 
tremes. This  was  the  case  with  "  Eutyches,  ab- 
bot of  a  certain  convent  of  monks  at  Constantino- 
ple ;  from  whom  originated  another  sect,  directly 


90  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

opposite  to  that  of  Nestorius,  but  equally  trouble- 
some, and  mischievous  to  the  interests  of  Christian- 
ity ;  and  which,  like  that,  spread  with  great  rapidi- 
ty throughout  the  East,  and  acquired  such  strength 
in  its  progress,  that  it  gave  immense  trouble  both 
to  the  Nestorians  and  to  the  Greeks,  and  became 
a  great  and  powerful  community."  Eutyches 
maintained  that  there  was  only  one  nature  in 
Christ,  namely,  that  of  the  Word,  who  became  in- 
carnate ;  that  the  two  natures  of  Christ  after  the 
union,  did  not  remain  two  distinct  natures,  but  con- 
stituted one  nature  ;  and  therefore  it  was  correct 
to  say,  Christ  was  constituted  of  or  from  two  na- 
tures ;  but  not  that  he  existed  in  two  natures.  The 
doctrine  of  Eutyches  was  first  sustained,  and  his 
accusers  condemned,  by  a  council  held  at  Ephe- 
sus,  A.  D.  449.  This  council  was  headed  by 
Dioscorus,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  a  man  of  much 
such  a  spirit  as  Cyril,  to  whom  he  was  successor, 
and  who  managed  the  business  of  this  council, 
with  the  same  unfairness  and  injustice.  Indeed, 
the  matter  was  finally  decided  by  a  band  of  sol- 
diers, and  an  armed  mob,  who  rushed  into  the 
church,  where  the  council  were  sitting.  The 
Greeks  call  this  council  an  assembly  of  Robbers. 
But  this  scene  was  soon  changed.  Through 
the  influence  of  Leo  the  Great,  pontiflT  of  Rome, 
another  general  council  was  called,  by  the  Em- 
peror Marcian,  at  Chalcedon,  in  the  year  451, 
which  is  called  the  fourth  general  council.  In  this 
council,  in  which  the  legates  of  Leo  had  great  in- 
fliuence,  Dioscorus  was  condemned,  deposed,  and 
banished ;  the  acts  of  the  late  council  were  re- 
scinded ;  Eutyches,  who  had  already  been  deposed 
and  banished  by  the  emperor,  was  condemned, 
though  absent ;  and  all  Christians  were  required 


FIFTH    CENTURY.  97 

10  believe,  that  in  Jesus  Christ  there  is  but  one 
person,  yet  two  distinct  natures,  no  way  conlbundt-d 
or  mixed.  This,  however,  instead  of  proving  a 
remedy,  and  putting  an  end  to  the  controversy, 
rather  made  the  matter  worse.  A  large  portion 
of  the  Eastern  bishops  made  violent  opposition  to 
this  council  of  Chalcedon,  and  contended  earnestly 
for  the  one  nature  in  Christ.  Hence  arose  most 
deplorable  discords  and  cruel  wars  almost  exceed- 
ing credibility.  Those  who  adopted  the  views  of 
these  bishops  were  afterwards  called  Monophysites, 
and  were  divided  into  several  parties,  with  slight 
shades  of  difference ;  and  their  contentions  were 
handed  down  to  after  ages. 

XV.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century,  other 
troubles  invaded  the  church  from  the  West,  in  the 
Pelagian  controversy,  which  has  continued  through 
successive  ages  to  the  present  day.  This  heresy 
was  headed  by  Pelagius,  a  Briton,  in  conjunction 
with  Ccelestius,  an  Irishman,  both  monks  living 
at  Rome.  They  held,  "  that  what  was  commonly 
inculcated  and  belicA^ed,  respecting  the  corruption 
of  the  human  nature,  derived  to  us  from  our  first 
parents,  was  aot  true ;  that  the  parents  of  the 
human  race  sinned,  only  for  themselves,  and  not 
for  their  posterity  ;  that  men  are  now  born  as  pure 
and  innocent  as  Adam  was,  when  God  created 
him ;  that  men,  therefore,  can,  by  their  natural 
power,  renovate  themselves,  and  reach  the  highest 
degree  of  holiness  ;  that  external  grace  is  indeed 
needful  to  excite  men  to  efforts,  but  that  they  have 
no  need  of  internal  divine  grace."  These  doc- 
trines they  disseminated  first  privately  at  Rome, 
and  afterwards  openly  in  Africa  and  the  East ; 
where  they  found  some  favour,  especially  with 
John,  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  They  were,  however, 
9 


9S  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

powerfully  and  successfully  opposed  by  Augustine^ 
and  their  doctrines  condemned  by  the  genera, 
council  at  Ephesus,  A.  D.  431.  These  contests 
gave  rise  to  others  not  less  distressing.  Augustine 
did  not  at  first  state  with  sufficient  clearness,  his 
opinions  respecting  the  divine  grace  necessary  to 
salvation, and  the  decrees  of  God  in  regard  to  the 
future  condition  of  individual  men.  His  system 
therefore,  was  carried  out  by  some  to  the  doctrine 
of  absolute  necessity — "  that  God  has  predestina- 
ted the  wicked,  not  only  to  suffer  eternal  punish- 
ment, but  also  to  commit  sin,  and  to  incur  the 
guilt  which  will  merit  that  punishment ;  and  of 
course,  to  believe,  that  both  the  good  and  the  sin- 
ful  actions  of  men  were,  from  all  eternity,  divinely 
predetermined  and  fixed  by  an  inevitable  neces- 
sity." Others  again,  headed  by  John  Cassian,  a 
monk  who  came  to  Marseilles  in  France,  from  the 
East,  went  to  the  other  extreme ;  and  were  called 
Semi-Pelagians.  They  taught,  "  that  God  did  not 
dispense  his  grace  to  one  more  than  another,  in 
consequence  of  an  eternal  and  absolute  decree,  but 
was  willing  to  save  all  men,  if  they  complied  with 
the  terms  of  his  gospel ;  that  Christ  died  for  all 
men ;  that  the  grace  purchased  by  Christ,  and 
necessary  to  salvation,  was  offered  to  all  men ; 
that  man,  before  he  received  grace,  was  capable 
of  faith  and  holy  desires  ;  that  man  was  born  free, 
and  consequently,  was  capable  of  resisting  the  in- 
fluences of  grace,  or  of  complying  with  its  sugges- 
tions."  These  doctrines  prevailed,  and  still  pre- 
vail, very  extensively.  From  this  period,  therefore, 
commenced  those  knotty  controversies,  concerning 
the  nature  and  the  mode  of  that  divine  agency, 
or  grace,  which  is  necessary  for  our  salvation  ; 
which  have  unhappily  divided  Christians,  in  every 


SIXTH    CENTURY.  99 

subsequent  age,  and  which  are  still  protracted,  to 
the  grief  of  all  the  pious  and  the  good. 


CENTURY  VI. 

1.  General  interests  of  Christianity. — 2.  Literature. — 3.  Monk- 
ery.— 4.  Theology. — 5.  Rites  and  Ceremonies. — 6.  Sects. 

I.  The  boundaries  of  the  church  were  extended  in 
the  East  during  the  sixth  century,  over  a  number 
of  heathen  tribes  who  dwelt  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Black  Sea.  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent  in 
Britain,  with  his  Anglo-Saxons,  was  converted  to 
Christianity  near  the  close  of  this  century,  by 
means  of  one  Augustine,  at  the  head  of  forty  Ben- 
edictine monks,  sent  over  by  Gregory  the  Great 
for  this  purpose.  Augustine  established  the  See 
of  Canterbury,  and  was  ordained  archbishop  and 
primate  of  all  England.  Several  barbarous  tribes 
of  Germany  are  said  to  have  embraced  Christian- 
ity in  this  century  ;  and  many  Jews  in  Gaul  and 
Spain  submitted  to  be  baptized,  through  the  influ- 
ence, either  of  rewards  offered,  or  punishments 
threatened  them.  But  the  conversions  of  this 
century  were  little  more  than  receiving  the  rite  of 
baptism,  assuming  the  name  of  Christian,  and 
making  some  little  change  in  the  external  form  of 
their  heathen  worship,  in  order  to  accommodate 
it  to  Christianity.  Heathen  temples  were  changed 
into  Christian  churches,  and  were  purified  and 
consecrated  with  holy  water  ;  and  the  people  were 
only  required  to  worship  the  images  of  Christ  and 


iOO  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  holy  men,  instead  of  those  of  their  idol  gods, 
and,  for  the  most  part,  with  the  same  ceremonies. 
The  religion  of  the  heart  seems  scarcely  to  have 
been  thought  of. 

Christians  suffered  severe  persecution  this  cen- 
tury under  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia.  The  ancient 
Britons,  who  were  Christians,  sutfered  every  kind 
of  calamity  from  their  conquerors,  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons ;  by  whom  they  were  driven  from  their  terri- 
tory, and  shut  up  among  the  mountains  of  Wales 
and  Cornwall.  Over  the  rest  of  England,  until 
near  the  end  of  this  century,  heathenism  reigned; 
and  the  churches  were  demolished,' or  converted 
into  idolatrous  temples.  The  Huns  also  made  in- 
roads upon  Thrace  and  Greece,  about  the  middle 
of  the  century,  and  treated  the  Christians  with 
great  cruelty. 

In  the  constitution  of  the  church,  there  was  no 
important  chancre  in  this  century.  The  bishops 
of  Rome  and  Constantinople,  who  were  regarded 
as  standing  at  the  head  of  the  whole  church,  were 
incessantly  contending  for  priority,  and  about  the 
extent  of  their  territories  and  jurisdiction.  John, 
bishop  of  Constantinople,  seems  first  to  have  as- 
sumed the  title  of  universal  bishop,  about  A.  D. 
587.  This  greatly  incensed  the  bishop  of  Rome  ; 
and  Gregory  the  Great  maintained  that  it  was 
"profane^  anticliristian,  and  infernal,  by  whomso- 
ever assumed.  The  wealth  and  privileges  of  the 
clergy  continued  to  increase,  and  in  the  same 
proportion,  their  luxury  and  other  vices.  Laws 
were  enacted  forbidding  drunkenness,  fortune-tell- 
ing, simony,  concubinage,  perjury,  usury,  and 
gaudy  dress  in  the  clergy.  Near  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  a  dreadful  contest  arose  between 
Symmachus  and  Laurentius,  each  claiming  to  be 


SIXTH    CENTURY.  101 

duly  elected  pontiff  of  Rome.  They  charged  one 
another  with  the  grossest  crimes.  This  dispute, 
prosecuted  on  both  sides  in  the  most  violent  man- 
ner, filled  Rome  with  war  and  bloodshed  for  many 
years ;  and  was  at  last  settled  by  an  appeal  to 
Theodoric,  the  Arian  king  of  the  Goths  at  Ra- 
venna. 

II.  The  sixth  century  in  regard  to  literature,  is 
almost  a  blank.  What  little  learning  remained, 
was  chiefly  found  among  the  bishops  and  monks. 
To  most  of  the  churches  called  Cathedrals^  schools 
were  attached,  where  the  bishop,  or  some  one  ap- 
pointed by  him,  instructed  the  youth  in  the  seven 
liberal  arts  ;  namely.  Grammar,  Rhetoric,  Logic, 
Arithmetic,  Music,  Geometry,  and  Astronomy.  In 
most  of  the  monasteries  were  opened  schools,  in 
which  such  youth  were  taught  as  were  devoted  to 
the  monastic  life.  Libraries  were  also  collected 
in  them,  and  the  feebler  of  the  monks,  that  were 
incapable  of  encountering  severe  labour,  were  em- 
ployed in  transcribing  books.  To  these  institu- 
tions therefore,  injurious  as  they  were  in  many 
respects,  the  world  is  chiefly  indebted  for  the 
remains  of  ancient  literature,  that  were  preserved 
and  handed  down  through  the  dark  ages.  Some 
bishops  of  the  church  were  utterly  opposed  to  the 
reading  of  heathen  authors,  as  a  horrible  wicked- 
ness ;  and  especially  Gregory  the  Great,  bishop 
of  Rome,  is  said  to  have  committed  Livy's  History 
to  the  flames,  and  to  have  caused  the  Capitoline 
Library  at  Rome  to  be  burned.  This  same  Greg- 
ory however,  could  expressly  tolerate  many  pagan 
customs  and  heathenish  rites. 

III.  The  increase  of  monkery  in  fhis  age,  was 
very  great  every  where.  In  the  East,  whole 
armies  might  have  been  enrolled,  without  any  sen- 

9* 


102  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

sible  diminution  of  their  nunnbers.  In  the  West, 
this  mode  of  life  found  patrons  and  followers, 
almost  without  number,  in  all  the  provinces.  In 
Great  Britain,  one  Congal  influenced  vast  numbers 
to  abandon  active  life  and  spend  their  days  in 
solitude,  according  to  a  rule  which  he  prescribed. 
His  disciples  filled  Ireland,  Gaul,  Germany,  Swit- 
zerland, and  other  countries.  He  is  said  to  have 
ruled  over  three  thousand  monks,  living  in  dif- 
ferent monasteries  and  cells. 

In  the  year  529,  a  new  order  of  monks  was  es- 
tablished in  the  West,  by  St.  Benedict,  which  in 
time  absorbed  all  the  others.  His  rule,  which  is 
still  extant,  is  very  strict ;  and  the  order,  at  first, 
seem  to  have  been  a  virtuous,  orderly,  and  useful 
people.  They  promoted  literature,  husbandry, 
agriculture,  &c.,  and  laboured  with  their  own 
hands.  But  after  they  had  acquired  immense 
wealth,  by  the  liberality  of  princes  and  pious  indi- 
viduals, they  gave  themselves  up  to  luxury,  idle- 
ness, and  every  vice ;  and  were  most  active  in 
promoting  the  power  and  authority  of  the  Roman 
pontiffs. 

The  writers  of  this  century,  although  numerous, 
were  generally  of  an  inferior  grade.  None  of 
them  rose  above  mediocrity,  unless  we  make  Bo- 
ethius  an  exception,  and  therefore  they  need  not 
be  particularly  mentioned. 

IV.  The  theology  of  this  century  was  greatly 
debased  and  corrupted,  and  partook  largely  of 
mysticism,  superstition,  and  error.  The  contro- 
versial theologians  of  the  East  continued  to  darken 
and  perplex  the  great  truths  of  religion,  by  the 
most  subtle  distinctions,  and  the  jargon  of  their 
philosophy.  The  mere  externals  of  religion  were 
inculcated   upon  the  people,  and  that  in  a  very 


SIXTH    CENTUKY.  103 

erroneous  manner.  Penance  was  enjoined  instead 
of  repentance  ;  fasting,  repeating  prayers,  and  the 
like,  instead  of  a  holy  life ;  great  merit  was 
attached  to  building  churches,  founding  monaste- 
ries, and  such  like  pious  works  ;  the  clergy  were 
held  in  high  veneration,  and  empty  ceremonies 
much  admired.  "  Whoever  wishes  to  gain  more 
distinct  information  on  this  subject,"  says  Mos- 
heim,  "  need  only  read  what  occurs  in  the  epistles 
and  other  writings  of  Gregory  the  Great,  among 
others,  respecting  the  worshipping  of  images  and 
departed  saints,  the  fire  which  purifies  souls  after 
death,  the  efficacy  of  good  works,  that  is,  of  human 
prescriptions  and  devices  for  attaining  salvation, 
the  power  of  relics  to  remove  defects  both  of  soul 
and  body,  and  other  things  of  the  like  character. 
A  man  of  sense  cannot  help  smiling,  at  the  gener- 
osity of  the  good  Gregory  in  distributing  his  relics  ; 
but  he  must  feel  pity  for  the  simple,  stupid  people, 
who  could  be  persuaded  that  oil  taken  from  lamps 
burning  at  the  sepulchres  of  the  martyrs,  possessed 
uncommon  virtues  and  efficacy,  and  added  both 
holiness  and  security  to  its  possessors." 

They  who  undertook  to  be  expositors  of  Scrip- 
ture, scarcely  deserve  the  name.  Most  of  them 
followed  Origen  in  despising  the  plain  sense  of 
Scripture  ;  and,  searching  for  allegories  and  moral 
precepts,  by  means  of  a  roving  imagination,  de- 
duced whatever  they  wished,  from  the  sacred 
Oracles. 

The  disputes  about  Origen,  and  his  philosophi- 
cal corruptions  of  Christianity,  were  still  kept  up, 
or  rather  revived  among  the  monks  of  Palestine. 
The  doctrines  ascribed  to  him,  and  entertained  by 
his  followers,  (for  it  is  rather  uncertain  what  Ori- 
gen himself  held,)  were  finally  condemned  by  the 


104  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

•  fifth  general  council,  convened  at  Constantinople, 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  A.  D.  553. 
The  errors  ascribfid  to  Origen  are  the  following, 
with  some  others  of  like  character.  1.  That 
there  is  a  pre-existent  state  of  human  souls. 
2.  That  souls  were  condemned  to  animate  mortal 
bodies,  in  order  to  expiate  faults  they  had  commit- 
ted in  a  pre-existent  state.  3.  That  the  soul  of 
Christ  was  united  to  the  Word  before  his  incarna- 
tion. 4.'  That  at  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  we 
shall  be  clothed  with  ethereal  bodies.  5.  That 
after  long  periods  of  time,  the  damned  shall 
be  released  from  their  torment,  and  restored  to  a 
new  state  of  probation.  6.  That  the  earth  after 
its  conflagration,  shall  become  habitable  again, 
and  be  the  mansion  of  men  and  animals,  and  that, 
in  eternal  vicissitudes. 

This  council  also  decided  the  controversy  re- 
specting the  three  chapters^  so  called ;  which  has 
been  the  cause  of  much  contention  and  disturbance 
in  the  church.  This  appellation  was  given  to 
three  subjects  of  dispute ;  the  first,  respecting  the 
character  and  writings  of  Theodorus,  of  Mopsues- 
tia ;  the  second,  the  writings  of  Theodoret  of  Cy 
rus,  opposing  the  twelve  anathemas  that  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  had  published  against  Nestorius ;  the 
third,  an  epistle  of  Ibas  of  Edessa.  These  bishops 
had  favoured  the  Nestorians ;  their  writings  were 
therefore  condemned,  and  Theodorus,  although 
dead,  was  pronounced  a  heretic,  by  this  council. 
This  was  a  pretty  severe  reflection  upon  the 
council  of  Chalcedon,  which  had  sustained  these 
men  and  their  writings.  It  was  therefore  vio- 
lently opposed  by  Vigilius,  bishop  of  Rome. 
Here  we  seem  to  have  one  general  council  against 
another. 


SIXTH    CENTURY.  105 

Another  controversy  broke  out  among  the  Greeks 
in  the  year  519  ;  namely,  whether  it  could  be  pro- 
perly said  that  one  of  tlie  Trinity  was  crucified  ; 
and  connected  with  this  was  another  question  ; 
whether  it  was  proper  to  say  that  ClirisVs  person 
was  compounded.  Such  were  the  questions  that 
disturbed  the  peace  of  the  church  in  that  age. 

V.  Rites  and  ceremonies  continued  to  increase 
in  proportion  as  piety  and  godliness  declined  ;  for 
it  is  usual  for  those  to  make  most  of  the  forms  of 
religion,  who  have  least  of  its  power.  In  the  East, 
the  Novatian  and  Eutychian  controversies  occa- 
sioned the  introduction  of  many  rites  and  forms, 
as  marks  of  distinction  between  the  different  par- 
ties. In  the  West,  Gregory  the  Great  was  remark- 
ably fond  of  inventing  and  introducing  new  cere- 
monies. The  multiplication  of  new  ceremonies, 
gave  rise  to  a  new  kind  of  science  ;  the  object  of 
which  was  to  explain  their  use  and  meaning. 
Public  worship  was  still  performed  in  the  vernacu- 
lar language  of  each  nation,  Gregory  the  Great, 
established  a  new  mode  of  administering  the  Lord's 
supper,  magnificently  and  with  splendid  apparatus. 
But  it  was  many  ages  before  the  6ther  western 
churches  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  adopt  this 
Romish  form.  He  also  introduced  the  responsive 
chant,  and  established  a  school  for  church  music. 
Baptism  was  chiefly  administered  at  the  greater 
festivals  ;  viz  :  christmas,  epiphany,  easter,  whit- 
suntide,  and  St.  John  the  Baptist's  day.  Temples 
dedicated  to  the  saints  were  exceedingly  numerous, 
both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West.  They  were 
built  not  merely  for  the  accommodation  of  wor- 
shippers— for  this  they  were  not  needed  ;  but  the 
favour  and  patronage  of  the  saints,  were  thought, 
in  this  way,  to  be  secured  to  the  provinces,  cities 


106  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

towns,  and  villages,  in  which  their  temples  were 
erected  and  dedicated.  The  nunnber  of  least  days 
almost  equalled  that  of  the  churches.  The  feast 
of  the  purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  seems  to 
have  taken  place  of  the  heathen  Lupercalia ; 
which,  in  some  respects,  it  resembled. 

VI.  The  old  sects  still  subsisted  in  various  places. 
The  Maiiicheans  were  considerably  numerous  in 
Persia.  In  Gaul  and  Africa,  the  contentions  be- 
tween the  Semi-Pelagians,  and  the  followers  of 
Augustine  continued.  The  Donatists  revived  in 
Africa,  under  the  Vandal  government,  until  that 
kingdom  was  overturned,  A.  D.  534.  From  that 
time  they  declined,  and  became  extinct  before  the 
end  of  this  century  ;  at  least  are  not  heard  of  after- 
wards. The  Arians,  in  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury, were  triumphant  in  some  parts  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe.  Many  Asiatic  bishops  favoured  them ; 
and  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  the  Goths  in  Italy,  many 
of  the  Gauls,  Suevi,  Burgundians,  and  Spaniards, 
openly  espoused  their  cause.  But  this  prosperity 
of  the  Arians  wholly  terminated,  when,  under  the 
auspices  of  Justinian,  the  Vandals  were  driven 
from  Africa,  and  the  Goths  from  Italy.  The  other 
kings  of  the  West,  who  had  espoused  their  cause, 
either  by  arguments,  or  some  other  means,  were 
brought  over  to  the  orthodox  faith.  The  Nestori- 
ans  during  this  century,  had  numerous  societies 
in    all    parts  of  Persia,  in    India,*  in  Armenia, 

*  The  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar 
are  a  branch  of  the  Nestorians ;  who  have  existed  down  to 
the  present  day,  almost  without  any  connexion  with  any  other 
part  of  the  Christian  church.  They  are  said  to  retain  strong- 
ly file  features  of  their  descent  from  the  earliest  Christian 
communities.  They  celebrate  the  anapap,  (love-feast ;)  portion 
maidens  from  the  property  of  the  church  ;  and  provide  for  the 
poor.    Their  ideas  of  the  Loid's  supper  inchne  to  those  of  the 


SIXTH    CENTURY.  107 

Arabia,  Syria,  and  elsewhere.  The  sect  of  the 
Monophysites,  (that  is,  they  who  held  to  the  one 
nature  in  Christ,  and  who  veered  to  the  opposite 
extreme  from  the  Nestorians,)were  also  numerous 
in  the  East.  About  the  middle  of  the  century,  this 
sect  was  greatly  revived  and  strengthened,  by  the 
most  indefatigable  labour  and  perseverance  of  one 
Jacobus,  an  indigent  monk,  who  travelled  over  all 
the  East  for  this  purpose.  From  him,  as  the  sec- 
ond father  of  the  sect,  all  the  Monophysites  in  the 
East  are  called  Jacobites.  There  were  a  number 
of  mooted  points,  about  which  the  Monophysites 
disagreed  and  disputed  among  themselves.  Some 
said  that  the  Divine  nature  had  so  insinuated  itself 
into  the  body  of  Christ,  from  the  very  moment  of 
his  conception,  that  his  body  became  changed  in 
its  nature  so  as  to  be  incorruptible.  Others  held 
that  the  body  of  Christ  was  corruptible,  but  owing 
to  the  influence  of  the  Divine  nature,  was  never 
in  fact  corrupted.  They  disputed  also  whether  the 
body  of  Christ  was  created  or  uncreated.  Another 
discussion  related  to  the  degree  of  knowledge  that 
pertained  to  the  human  nature  of  Christ — or  ra- 
ther, to  Christ,  as  partaking  of  human  nature. 
From  the  controversies  with  the  Monophysites, 
arose  the  sect  called  Tritheists  ;  because  they  held 
that  there  were  in  God,  three  numerically  distinct 
natures  or  substances,  all  perfectly  alike,  and  con- 


Protestants  ;  but  in  celebrating  it,  they  use  salt  and  oil.  At  the 
time  of  baptism,  they  anoint  the  body  of  the  infant  with  oiL 
These  two  ceremonies,  with  that  of  the  consecration  of  priests, 
are  the  only  sacraments  which  they  acknowledge.  Their 
priests  are  distinguished  by  the  tonsure,  and  are  allowed  to 
marry.  Their  churches  contain,  except  the  cross,  no  symbols 
nor  pictures.  They  are  in  number  about  eighty  thousand,  and 
are  under  the  British  government,.free  from  any  ecclesiastical 
restraint. 


103  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

% 

nected  by  no  common  chain  or  vinculum.  In 
matters  of  this  sort,  there  has,  in  every  age,  been 
a  strong  propensity  in  man,  to  be  wise  above  icliat 
is  written ;  and  this  is  the  source  of  more  than 
half  the  disputes,  that  in  former,  as  well  as  in 
modern  times,  have  rent  and  deformed  the  church. 


CENTURY  VII 

I.  Extension  of  Christianity. — 2.  Mohammedism. — 3.  Litera 
ture. — 4.  The  Roman  church  receives  the  title  of  head  of 
all  the  churches. — 5.  State  of  religion. — 6.  Sects.— 7.  Mon- 
othelites. 

I.  In  the  seventh  century,  Christianity  contin- 
ued to  extend  its  influences,  both  in  the  East  and 
in  the  West.  The  Nestorians  in  Persia,  Syria, 
and  India,  laboured  with  great  industry,  to  propa- 
gate Christianity  among  the  barbarous  and  savage 
nations,  inhabiting  the  deserts,  and  remotest  shores 
of  Asia.  There  is  abundant  evidence,  that  in  this 
century  there  were  many  Christians  in  China,  over 
whom,  for  several  subsequent  centuries,  a  tnetro- 
jpolitmi  presided,  sent  out  by  the  N;,'storian  patri- 
arch. "  It  is  the  constant  tradition  of  the  Syrian 
Christians,  that  St.  Thomas  the  apostle,  made  an 
excursion  to  China;  and  the  Christians  of  Malabar 
celebrate  the  event  in  their  ordinary  worship  ; 
and  their  primate  styled  himself  metropolitan  of 
Hindostan  and  China,  when  the  Portuguese  first 
knew  them." 

In  England,  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  had  been 
converted  to  Christianity  near  the  close  of  the  last 


SEVENTH    CENTURY.  109 

century.  In  the  course  of  this  century,  the  other 
six  kings,  forming  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  came 
over,  one  after  another,  and  Britain  became  entire- 
iV  Christian.  The  conversion  of  these  Saxon 
kings,  seems  to  have  been  effected  very  much,  by 
the  influence  of  their  Christian  wives.  Paulinus, 
in  the  year  627,  is  said  to  have  baptized  twelve 
thousand  Northumbrians  in  one  day,  in  the  river 
Swale,  near  Richmond.  "  A  great  dispute  arose 
about  the  tonsure  of  priests,  (whether  only  a  con- 
siderable spot,  or  the  whole  head,  except  a  circu- 
lar margin,  should  be  shaved,)  and  about  the  time 
of  holding  Easter — those  north  of  the  Thames 
following  the  Irish  or  Gaelic  ritual,  and  those  south 
of  it  the  Roman — a  conference  was  held  on  these 
subjects,  at  Whitby,  in  the  year  664.  Here  Os- 
way,  king  of  Northumberland,  learning  from  the 
Romish  party,  that  St.  Peter  had  the  keys  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  and  that  the  other  party  could 
not  deny  that  fact,  declared  he  would  not  offend 
St.  Peter,  lest  when  he  arrived  at  the  gates  of 
heaven,  he  should  find  that  the  door-keeper  would 
not  open  to  him.  This  wise  thought  decided  the 
question  with  the  majority."  Columbanus,  St. 
Gall,  St.  Kilian,  and  other  zealous  missionaries, 
extended  Christianity  among  the  tribes  of  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  Denmark,  &c.  that  were  still 
pagans.  The  Jews  in  many  places,  were  cruelly 
treated,  and  often  reluctantly  compelled  to  receive 
baptism,  and  to  make  an  outward  profession  of 
their  belief  in  Christ. 

II.  Christianity  did  not  suffer  much  persecution 
in  this  century;  but  a  new  and  most  powerful  enemy 
started  up  in  Arabia,  A.  D.  612,  in  the  person  of 
Mohammed.  He  professed  to  be  the  propJiet  of 
God,  sent  to  overthrow  all  polytheism  ;  and  also  to 
10 


110  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

purge  and  reform,  first,  the  religion  of  the  Arabs, 
and  next,  those  of  the  Jews  and  Christians.  Mo- 
hammed at  first  treated  Christians  with  mildness, 
but  afterwards  with  great  cruelty.  This  extraor- 
dinary delusion  was  propagated  with  great  rapid- 
ity, and  to  great  extent ;  and  exists  down  to  the 
present  day,  over  an  extent  of  country,  perhaps 
not  less  than  Christendom  itself.  "  The  causes  of 
the  rapid  propagation  of  this  new  religion  among 
so  many  nations,  are  not  difficult  to  be  discovered. 
In  the  first  place,  the  terror  of  arms,  which  Mo- 
hammed and  his  successors  carried  with  great  suc- 
cess into  different  countries,  compelled  vast  multi- 
tudes to  receive  his  law.  In  the  next  placd*,  his 
law  itself  was  admirably  adapted  to  the  natural 
dispositions  of  men,  and  especially  to  the  manners, 
the  opinions,  and  the  vices  prevalent  among  the 
people  of  the  East ;  for  it  was  extremely  simple, 
proposing  very  few  things  to  be  believed  ;  nor  did 
it  enjoin  many  and  difficult  duties  to  be  performed, 
or  such  as  laid  severe  restraints  on  the  propensi- 
ties of  men.  Moreover,  the  consummate  ignor- 
ance, which  characterized,  for  the  most  part,  the 
Arabians,  the  Syrians,  the  Persians,  and  other  na- 
tions of  the  East,  gave  a  bold  and  eloquent  man 
ready  access  to  the  minds  of  immense  multitudes. 
We  may  add,  that  the  virulent  contests  among  the 
Christians,  Greeks,  Nestorians,  Eutychians,  and 
Monophysi.es,  which  filled  a  large  part  of  the 
East  with  carnage  and  horrible  crimes,  rendered 
their  religion  odious  in  the  eyes  of  many.  And  the 
Monophysites  and  Nestorians,  whom  the  Greeks 
oppressed  most  grievously,  rendered  assistance  to 
the  Arabians,  and  thus  facilitated  their  conquest  of 
some  provinces.  Other  causes  will  suggest  them- 
selves to  those  who  consider  attentively  the  state 


SEVENTH    CENTURY.  Ill 

of  the  world,  and  the  character  of  the  Moham- 
medan religion." 

III.  Learning,  in  this  age,  was  at  a  very  low 
ebb,  and  philosophy  almost  extinct ;  especially  in 
the  West.  What  little  learning  still  existed,  was 
confined  chiefly  to  the  cloisters  of  the  monks.  The 
laws  forbade  any  one  to  be  made  an  abbot,  unless 
he  had  some  learning  ;  and  the  monks  were  re- 
quired  to  devote  some  portion  of  every  day  to 
reading.  It  was  rare  to  find  any  one  among  the 
bishops,  who  was  capable  of  composing  his  own 
discourses.  They  contented  themselves  for  the 
most  part,  with  garbled  extracts  from  Augustine, 
Gregory,  and  others.  One  exception  there  was, 
in  Theodorus,  a  Cilician,  who,  in  668,  was  made 
bishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  a  man  of  learning, 
and  gave  an  impulse  to  the  cause  of  letters  among 
the  x4.nglo-Saxon  clergy.  He  introduced  a  fine 
library  of  Latin  and  Greek  works  into  England. 
The  writers  of  this  century  are  of  very  inferior 
character,  and  need.not  be  mentioned.  Few  un- 
dertook to  interpret  Scripture  ;  and  they,  with  very 
little  success.  Books  on  practical  religion  were 
chiefly  filled  up  with  legends  of  saints,  calculated 
only  to  cherish  superstition. 

IV.  The  contest  for  pre-eminence  between  the 
prelates  of  Rome  and  Constantinople,  was  still  kept 
up.  The  pontiff  of  Rome,  Boniface  III.  obtained 
a  decree  from  the  tyrant  Phocas,  who  had  seized 
upon  the  imperial  crown,  after  the  murder  of  the 
emperor  Mauritius,  "  that  the  Romish  church,  the 
apostolic  seat  of  the  blessed  apostle  Peter,  should 
be  the  head  of  all  the  churches."  The  Roman 
pontiffs  struggled  hard,  by  every  means  in  their 
power,  to  increase  and  extend  their  authority  ;  but 
as  yet  it  was  far  from  being  universally  acknow- 


112  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ledged  and  submitted  to.  The  time  had  not  yet 
come,  when  the  pope  might  set  up  kings,  and  de- 
pose them  at  his  pleasure. 

V.  The  degeneracy  of  the  clergy  was  very  great ; 
and  unceasing  quarrels  existed  in  many  places,  be- 
tween the  bishops  and  the  monks.  The  latter  ap- 
pealed  to  the  pontiff  of  Rome,  who  readily  took 
them  under  his  care,  and  gradually  exempted  them 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.  They  in  turn 
defended  the  interest  of  the  pontiff,  as  if  it  were 
their  own.  The  monks,  in  the  meantime,  from 
the  favour  of  the  pontiffs,  and  their  show  of  ficti- 
tious piety,  were  every  where  greatly  increased, 
and  especially  among  the  Latins.  Parents  eager- 
ly consecrated  their  children  to  God,  with  good 
portions  of  their  property  made  over  to  the  monas- 
teries. They  who  had  been  guilty  of  great  crimes, 
hoped  to  make  atonement  for  them,  by  making 
over  their  property  to  some  company  of  monks  ; 
and  immense  numbers,  impelled  by  superstition, 
rebbed  their  heirs  of  their  richest  possessions,  in 
order  to  render  God  propitious  to  them  through 
the  prayers  of  the  monks. 

"  During  this  century,  true  religion  lay  buried 
under  a  mass  of  senseless  superstitions  ;  and  was 
unable  to  raise  her  head.  The  earlier  Christians 
had  worshipped  only  God,  and  his  Son  ;  but  those 
called  Christians  in  this  age,  worshipped  the  wood 
of  a  cross,  the  images  of  holy  men,  and  bones  of 
dubious  origin.  The  early  Christians  placed  hea- 
ven and  hell  before  the  view  of  men  ;  these  latter 
depicted  a  certain  fire  prepared  to  burn  off  the  im- 
perfections of  the  soul.  The  former  taught  that 
Christ  had  made  expiation  for  the  sins  of  men,  by 
his  death  and  blood ;  the  latter  seemed  to  incul- 
cate that   the   gates  of  heaven  would  be  closed 


SEVENTH    CENTURY.  113 

against  none  who  should  enrich  the  clergy  or  the 
church  with  their  donations.  The  former  were 
studious  to  maintain  a  holy  simplicity,  and  to  fol- 
low a  pure  and  chaste  piety  ;  the  latter  placed  the 
substance  of  religion  in  external  rites  and  bodily 
exercises.  Did  any  one  hesitate  to  believe  ?  Two 
irrefragable  arguments  were  at  hand  ;  the  author- 
ity of  the  church,  and  miracles  ;  for  the  working 
of  which,  in  these  times  of  ignorance,  but  a  mode- 
rate share  of  dexterity  was  requisite." 

We  may  form  a  tolerably  definite  idea  of  the 
piety  of  this  age,  by  observing  in  what  it  was 
made  to  consist,  by  one  who,  at  the  time,  was  even 
more  celebrated  for  his  sanctity,  than  honoured 
for  his  ecclesiastical  dignity.  St.  Eloi,  bishop  of 
Noyon,  in  France,  thus  defines  the  "  good  Christ- 
ian."— "  He  is  a  good  Christian,  who  trusts  in  no 
phylacteries,  or  subtle  inventions  of  the  devil.  He, 
I  say,  is  a  good  Christian,  who  washes  the  feet  of 
his  guests,  and  loves  them  as  if  his  dearest  rela- 
tives ;  who  according  to  his  means,  gives  alms  to 
the  poor  ;  who  comes  often  to  church,  and  brings 
his  offering  to  be  laid  on  the  altar  of  God  ;  who 
tastes  not  of  his  produce  till  he  has  first  offered 
some  of  it  to  God ;  who  uses  not  deceitful  weights 
and  double  measures ;  who  does  not  lend  his 
money  for  usury  ;  who  both  lives  chastely  him- 
self, and  teaches  his  children  and  neighbours  to 
live  chastely  and  in  the  fear  of  God  ; final- 
ly, who  commits  to  memory,  the  Creed  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  teaches  the  same  to  his  sons 
and  daughters.  He  who  is  such,  is  without  doubt 
a  true  Christian.  .  .  .  But  that  you  may  be  true 
Christians,  both  think  of  the  precepts  of  Christ 
continually  in  your  mind,  and  obey  them  in  your 
conduct.  Redeem  your  souls  from  punishment, 
10* 


114  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

while  you  have  the  means  in  your  power.  Give 
alms  according  to  your  ability,  maintain  peace  and 
charity,  reconcile  those  who  are  at  variance,  avoid 
lying,  dread  perjury,  give  no  false  testimony,  com- 
mit no  theft,  present  oflerings  and  tithes  to  the 
churches,  bring  candles  to  the  holy  places  accord- 
ing to  your  wealth,  remember  the  Creed  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  teach  them  to  your  children. .  . 
Come  often,  also,  to  church,  humbly  beg  the  inter- 
cessions of  the  saints,  from  reverence  for  the  re- 
surrection of  Christ,  keep  the  Lord's  day  without 
any  servile  work,  observe  the  Saints'  days  with 
pious  affection,  &c.  Which  if  you  shall  do,  you 
will  come  with  confidence,  in  the  day  of  judgment, 
before  the  bar  of  the  eternal  Judge,  and  say  :  Give, 
Lord,  for  we  have  given  ;  have  mercy,  for  we 
have  shown  mercy  ;  we  have  done  what  thou  hast 
commanded,  perform  what  thou  hast  promised." — 
The  serious  reader  will  notice,  that,  in  this  full 
length  portrait  of  a  true  Christian,  the  inventions 
of  men  are  put  on  a  level  with  the  commandments 
of  God  ;  and  that  the  only  ground  on  which  sin- 
ners cun  be  justified  before  God  being  overlooked, 
they  are  sent  to  the  bar  of  final  judgment,  depend- 
ing on  their  own  works. 

Rites  and  ceremonies  still  increased.  To  the 
festivals  already  oppressively  numerous,  was  added 
a  day  consecrated  to  the  wood  of  ike  cross,  on 
which  the  Saviour  was  crucified.  This  was  done 
A.  D.  631,  when  the  emperor  Heraclius  vanquish- 
ed the  Persians,  and  recovered  the  real  cross,  (so 
called)  which  Cosroes  their  king  had  carried  off 
fourteen  years  Jaefore.  The  Pantheon  at  Rome 
was  obtained  by  gift,  and  consecrated  by  Boniface 
to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  all  the  martyrs  ;  as  it  had 
before  been  sacred  to  all  the  Gods,  and  particular 


SEVENTH    CENTURY.  115 

ly  to  Cybele  ;  and  the  feast  of  All  Saints  was  in- 
stituted. Churches  were  invested  with  those  rights 
of  asylum,  which  afforded  villains  an  opportunity 
to  conamit  crimes  without  much  danger  ;  and  which 
led,  in  the  West,  to  the  most  shocking  disorders. 
The  art  of  ornamenting  churches  magnificently, 
was  cultivated  with  great  diligence  by  Honorius. 

VI.  Many  of  the  ancient  sects,  although  repress- 
ed by  the  imperial  laws,  still  existed,  and  sometimes 
revived.  The  Nestorians  and  Monophysites  en- 
joyed protection  and  encouragement  under  the 
government  of  the  Saracens,  who  had  made  them- 
selves masters  of  a  great  part  of  the  East.  The 
Greeks  during  this  century,  were  engaged  in  a 
tierce  contest  with  the  Paulicians,  who  inhabited 
Armenia  and  the  adjacent  countries,  and  were  con- 
sidered as  a  branch  of  the  Manichaeans.  There  is 
every  reason,  however,  to  believe  that  they  were 
not  Manichseans,  but  pious  ivit7iesses  of  the  truths 
who  protested  against  the  unsound  doctrines,  the 
superstition,  and  the  prelacy  which  had  then  gain- 
ed so  general  an  establishment  in  the  church.  The 
statements  of  their  enemies  to  the  contrary  have 
been  too  generally  believed  and  adopted.  They 
were  probably  called  Faulicians,  on  account  of 
their  great  attachment  to  the  epistles  of  the  apostle 
Paul.  They  were  assailed,  not  only  with  argu- 
ments ;  but  more  effectually  with  arms  and  legal 
enactments.  In  Italy,  the  Lombards  preferred 
the  opinions  of  the  Arians,  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
Nicene  creed.  In  Gaul  and  in  England,  the  Pela- 
gian and  Semi-Pelagian  controversies  still  produ- 
ced some  disquietude. 

VII.  Amongst  the  Greeks,  there  arose,  in  the 


116  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

year  630,  a  new  sect,  called  Monothelites,  which 
soon  produced  very  great  commotions.  It  grew 
out  of  an  attempt  of  the  emperor  Heraclius  to 
restore  the  Monophysites  to  the  communion  of  the 
church.  They  had  suggested  that  if  the  Greeks 
would  admit  and  profess,  that  in  Jesus  Christ, 
after  the  union  of  the  two  natures,  there  was  but 
one  will^  and  one  voluntary  action^  there  might 
be  a  reconciliation.  This  doctrine,  Sergius,  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  and  Cyrus,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  decided,  might  be  held,  without  preju- 
dice to  the  truth,  or  to  the  council  of  Chalcedon. 
And  this  opinion  was  confirmed  by  a  solemn  de- 
cree of  a  council  held  by  Cyrus  of  Alexandria. 
When  Honorius,  pontiff  of  Rome,  was  afterwards 
applied  to  on  the  subject  by  Sergius,  he  dfvcided 
that  those  held  sound  doctrine  who  taught,  that 
there  was  one  ivill  and  one  operation  in  Christ. 
This  doctrine  was  violently  opposed  by  Sophron- 
ius,  first  a  monk,  and  afterwards  patriarch  of  Je- 
rusalem. After  much  contention  and  disturbance, 
a  general  council  was  assembled  at  Constantinople, 
A.  D.  680,  called  the  sixth  oecumenical  council ; 
in  which  the  Monothelites,  and  among  them  Ho- 
norius, pontiff  of  Rome,  were  condemned  as  here- 
tics ;  and  the  doctrine  of  two  wills,  a  human  and 
a  divine,  and  two  kinds  of  voluntary  acts  in 
Christ,  was  defined  and  established.  It  seems 
that  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  was  not  yet 
thought  of,  as  this  council  so  unceremoniously 
condemned  him  as  a  heretic.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Monothelites,  condemned  and  exploded  by  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  found  a  place  of  refuge 
among  the  Mardaites,  a  people  who  inhabited  the 
mountains  of  Libanus,  and  Antilibanus ;  and  who 
about  the  conclusion  of  this  ceotury,  received  the 


EIGHTH    CENTURY.  117 

name  of  Maronites,  from  John  Maro,  their  first 
bishop,  a  name  which  ihey  still  retain.  In  692, 
another  council  was  held  at  Constantinople,  in 
which  were  decreed  one  hundred  and  two  canons, 
on  various  subjects  relating  to  external  worship, 
the  government  of  the  church,  &c.  Some  of  these 
canons  were  opposed  to  the  opinions  and  customs 
of  the  Romish  church  :  the  Roman  pontiffs  there- 
fore refused  to  approve  the  council  as  a  whole,  or 
to  rank  it  among  the  geiieral  councils,  although 
they  have  deemed  the  greater  part  of  its  canons  to 
be  excellent. 


CENTURY  VIII. 

1.  Extension  and  sufferings  of  the  church. — 1.  Increase  of  cor 
ruptions  and  power  among  the  clergy. — 3.  State  of  religion 
— 4.  Literature — 5.  Controversies. 

I.  The  Nestorians  in  the  East  continued,  during 
the  eighth  century,  to  extend  the  influences  of 
Christianity  among  the  Scythians  and  Tartars, 
inhabiting  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  A  Nes- 
torian  missionary  by  the  name  of  Subchal,  travel- 
led further  East,  and  spread  the  gospel  extensively 
in  Tartary,  Cathai,  and  China.  In  the  West,  by 
the  active  and  persevering  labours  of  Boniface, 
who  has  obtained  the  title  of  the  apostle  of  Ger- 
many, churches  were  established  extensively 
among  the  Thuringians,  Hessians,  and  Friesland- 
ers ;  by  the  latter  of  whom,  he  was  finally  mur- 
dered, together  with  fifty  other  clergymen,  who 


118  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

attended  him  ;  (A.  D.  755.)  Boniface  possessed 
great  zeal  and  activity,  and  perhaps  true  piety ; 
but  strongly  tinctured  with  the  errors  of  those 
times — excessive  attachment  to  monkery,  super- 
stitious regard  for  the  externals  of  religion,  and 
devotion  to  the  power  and  authority  of  the  Roman 
pontiff.  Corbinian,  a  French  Benedictine  monk  ; 
Pirmin,  also  a  French  monk ;  and  Lebvvin,  an 
Englishman ;  with  many  others  of  less  note,  la- 
boured with  zeal,  and  with  more  or  less  success, 
to  establish  Christianity  among  other  nations  of 
Germany  that  were  still  heathen.  Corbinian 
obtained  remarkable  fame,  by  his  marvellous 
sanctity,  and  numerous  miracles.  The  Saxons 
and  Huns,  who  were  less  yielding  to  the  influence 
of  missionaries  that  were  sent  among  them,  were 
more  effectually  brought  over  to  submit  to  bap- 
tism, by  the  arms  of  Charlemagne.  With  all  due 
zeal,  he  assailed  them  with  the  sword,  with  re- 
wards and  punishments,  the  legitimate  arguments 
of  kings,  until,  being  humbled  and  exhausted,  they 
thought  it  better  to  become  Christians,  than  to  be 
slaves.  One  law,  well  calculated,  we  may  sup- 
pose, to  accomplish  its  object,  was  in  these  words. 
If  any  person  of  the  Saxon  race^  shall  contem'pt- 
iLously  refuse  to  come  to  baptisryi,  and  shall  resolve 
to  continue  a  heathen,  let  him  be  put  to  death. 
For  these  achievements  of  Charlemagne,  in  behalf 
of  Christianity,  the  gratitude  of  posterity  decreed 
him  the  honours  of  a  saint. 

The  following  are  curious  specimens  of  the  mi- 
racles of  this  age.  "  In  the  life  of  St.  Winnock, 
it  is  stated  as  a  miracle,  that  his  mill,  when  he  let 
go  of  it,  to  say  his  prayers,  would  turn  itself.  And 
when  an  inquisitive  monk  looked  through  a  crevice, 
to  see  the  wonder,  he  was  struck  blind  for  his  pre- 


EIGHTH    CENTURY.  119 

sumption.  The  biographer  of  St.  Pardulphus, 
makes  a  child's  cradle  to  rock  day  after  day,  with- 
out hands  ;  while,  if  touched,  it  would  stop,  and 
remain  immovable.  In  the  life  of  St.  Guthlack, 
of  Croyland,  while  the  saint  was  praying,  at  his 
vigils,  a  vast  number  of  devils  entered  his  cell, 
rising  out  of  the  ground,  and  issuing  from  crevices. 
These  bound  the  saint  fast,  dragged  him  through 
hedges  and  briers,  hfted  him  up  from  the  earth, 
and  carried  him  to  the  mouth  of  hell,  where  he 
saw  all  the  torments  of  the  damned.  But  while 
they  were  threatening  to  confine  him  there,  St 
Bartholomew  appeared  in  glory  to  him ;  the 
devils  were  affrighted ;  and  he  was  conducted 
back  to  his  cell,  by  his  celestial  deliverer.  These 
are  only  a  few,  among  scores  of  others,  which 
might  be  adduced." 

In  this  century,  the  church  suffered  very  se-  ,^ 
verely  both  in  the  East,  and  in  the  West,  from 
the  Saracens.  The  Greek  empire,  greatly  weak- 
ened by  internal  dissensions,  was  not  able  to 
withstand  this  warlike  people,  who  overran  the 
fairest  portions  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  in  many 
places,  wholly  exterminated  the  Christian  faith. 
In  the  year  714,  the  Saracens  passed  over  from 
Africa  into  Spain,  and  routed  the  army  of  Roderic, 
king  of  the  Spanish  Goths,  and  subdued  the 
greater  part  of  that  country.  Thus  was  the 
kingdom  of  the  West  Goths  in  Spain,  wholly  ex- 
terminated by  this  ferocious  people,  after  it  had  stood 
more  than  three  centuries.  And  even  France  and 
Italy  suffered  from-  the  frequent  invasions  of  these 
fierce  and  victorious  propagators  of  the  Moham- 
medan faith.  The  Christians  of  Germany  often 
suffered  from  the  neighbouring  tribes  that  still  re- 
mained  pagan.     About  the  middle  of  this  century 


120  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

a  new  enemy  to  Christianity  appeared,  still  more 
savage  and  cruel  than  the  Saracens  ;  namely,  the 
Turks.  They  were  a  tribe  of  the  Tartars,  a 
rough  and  uncivilized  race,  who,  issuing  from  the 
narrow  passes  of  Caucasus,  burst  upon  Colchis, 
Iberia,  and  Albania,  and  thence  proceeding  to 
Armenia,  first  subdued  the  Saracens,  and  after- 
wards the  Greeks. 

II.  The  degeneracy  and  vices  of  the  clergy  of 
this  age  may  be  inferred  from  the  laws  enacted 
against  them  by  Carloman,  Pepin,  and  especially 
Charlemagne.  These  laws  forbid  clergymen's 
loaning  money  at  twelve  per  cent,  interest — haunt- 
ing taverns — practising  magic — receiving  bribes 
to  ordain  improper  persons :  bishops,  abbots,  and 
abbesses,  were  forbidden  to  keep  packs  of  hounds, 
or  hawks  and  falcons.  Laws  were  also  enacted 
against  clerical  drunkenness,  concubinage,  and 
profane  swearing.  Notwithstanding  their  vices, 
the  clergy  were  held  in  very  great  veneration, 
particularly  in  the  West.  Before  they  embraced 
Christianity,  these  nations  were  under  the  control 
of  their  priests,  and  dared  not  attempt  any  thing 
important,  either  civil  or  military,  without  their 
concurrence.  These  prerogatives,  therefore,  when 
they  became  Christian,  they  readily  transferred 
to  the  bishops  and  ministers  of  their  new  religion  ; 
and  the  Christian  prelates  and  clergy,  craftily  and 
eagerly  seized  and  appropriated  to  themselves 
these  rights.  Hence  originated  the  monstrous 
authority  of  the  priesthood  in  the  European 
churches,  which  was  always  much  greater  than 
in  the  East. 

"  To  the  honours  and  prerogatives  enjoyed  by 
the  bishops  and  priests,  with  the  concurrence  of 
the  people  of  the  West,  were  added,  during  this 


EIGHTH    CENTURY.  121 

period,  immense  wealth  and  riches.  The  church- 
es^ monasteries,  and  bishops  had  before  been  well 
supplied  with  goods  and  revenues  ;  but  in  this  cen- 
tury, there  arose  a  new  and  most  convenient 
method  of  acquiring  for  them  greater  riches,  and 
of  amplifying  them  forever.  Suddenly,  by  whose 
instigation  is  not  known,  the  idea  became  univer- 
sally prevalent,  that  the  punishment  for  sin,  which 
God  threatens  to  inflict,  may  be  bought  off  by  lib- 
eral gifts  to  God,  to  the  saints,  to  the  temples,  and  to 
the  ministers  of  God,  and  of  glorified  saints.  This 
opinion  being  every  where  admitted,  the  rich  and 
the  prosperous,  whose  lives  were  now  most  flagi- 
tious, conferred  their  wealth,  (which  they  had  re- 
ceived by  inheritance,  or  wrested  from  others  by 
violence  and  war,  according  to  the  customs  of  the 
age,)  upon  the  glorified  saints,  their  ministers,  and 
the  guardians  of  their  temples,  most  bountifully, 
for  religious  uses  ;  in  order  to  avoid  the  very  irk- 
some penances,*  which  were  enjoined  upon  them 
by  the  priests,  and  yet  be  secure  against  the  evils 
that  threatened  to  overtake  them  after  death.  This 
was  the  principal  source  of  those  immense  trea- 
sures, which  from  this  century  onward,  through 
all  the  subsequent  ages,  flowed  in  upon  the  clergy, 
the  churches,  and  the  monasteries." 

Princes  and  noblemen  made  over  to  the  church, 
not  merely  private  possessions,  but  public  proper- 
ty— royal  domains — whole  provinces,  cities,  and 
castles  ;  with  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  Thus 
the  persons,  whose  business  it  was  to  teach  con- 
tempt of  the  world,  unexpectedly  became  Dukes, 

*  The  penances  imposed  by  the  priests  of  those  times  upon 
those  who  confessed  their  sins  to  them,  were  such  as,  long  and 
severe  fasts,  tortures  of  the  body,  frequent  and  long  contin- 
ued prayers,  pilgrimages  to  the  tombs  of  the  saints,  and  the  like 
11 


122  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

Coimts,  Marquises^  Judges,  Legislators,  sovereign 
Lords  ;  and  not  only  administered  justice  to  citi- 
zens, but  even  marched  to  war,  at  the  head  of  their 
own  armies.  These  gifts  to  the  church  were  com- 
monly  called  tlie  price  of  sins  ;  and  were  said  to 
be  given,  for  the  redemption  of  their  souls,  and  for 
the  purchase  of  the  soul. 

This  great  aggrandizement  of  the  clergy  in  the 
West,  commenced  with  their  head,  the  Roman 
pontiff,  and  thence  extended  to  the  inferior  bishops, 
priests,  and  fraternities  of  monks.  In  the  year 
755,  Pepin,  king  of  the  Franks,  at  the  solicitation 
of  pope  Stephen  II.  marched  with  an  army  into 
Italy,  conquered  Aistulphus,  king  of  the  Lombards, 
who  had  laid  seige  to  Rome,  wrested  from  him  the 
Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  the  Pentapolis,  and 
with  amazing  liberality,  bestowed  them  upon  St. 
Peter  and  his  church  ;  thereby  constituting  the 
pope  a  prince  and  civil  ruler,  as  well  as  spiritual 
head  of  the  church.  This  grant,  Charlemagne, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Pepin,  in  774,  confirmed 
and  enlarged.  Pepin's  motive,  in  making  this  lib- 
eral grant  to  St.  Peter,  was,  as  appears  from  nu- 
merous testimonies,  to  make  atonement  for  his 
sins,  especially  the  great  sin  he  had  committed,  in 
conspiring  against  his  master,  Childeric,  and  seiz- 
ing upon  his  crown. — From  this  time  when  the 
pope  became  a  temporal  prince,  some  date  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  Antichrist ;  others,  from 
the  year  606,  when  by  the  decree  of  the  tyrant 
Phocas,  the  church  of  Rome  was  declared  to  be 
the  first,  (not  in  dominion,  but)  in  rank  and  digni- 
ty, of  all  the  churches. — The  pope,  however,  was 
not  yet  regarded  as  head  over  all  the  kings  of  the 
earth.  On  the  contrary,  the  right  of  appointing 
and  creating  the  Roman  pontiffs,  was,  by  Hadrian 


EIGHTH    CENTURY.  123 

I.,  in  a  council  at  Rome,  conferred  on  Charle- 
magne, and  his  successors.  Emperors  and  kings 
had  the. right  of  calling  councils  and  presiding  in 
them  ;  nor  could  the  decrees  of  a  council  have  the 
force  of  laws,  unless  they  were  confirmed  and  rati- 
fied by  the  reigning  sovereign. 

The  total  corruption  of  the  whole  sacred  order, 
pro#iced  in  the  West,  a  new  species  of  priests, 
called  canons^  who  were  an  intermediate  class  be- 
tween the  monks,  or  regular  clergy^  as  they  were 
called,  and  the  secular  priests.  They  lived  to 
gether,  ate  at  the  same  table,  and  adopted,  in  part, 
the  mode  of  life  of  the  monks  ;  but  did  not  take 
any  vows  upon  themselves. 

III.  The  religion  of  this  age  consisted  almost 
wholly  in  external  forms  and  ceremonies.  More 
solicitude,  for  the  most  part,  was  manifested  for 
multiplying  and  regulating  those,  than  for  correct- 
ing the  vices  of  men,  and  removing  their  ignorance 
and  impiety.  The  mode  of  celebrating  the  Lord's 
supper,  which  was  considered  the  most  important 
part  of  the  worship  of  God,  was  protracted  to  a 
great  length,  and  deformed  by  the  addition  of  vari- 
ous regulations.  The  superstitions  of  the  age,  in 
regard  to  this  ordinance,  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  decisions  of  Pope  Gregory  III.  '*  If  any 
one,  through  negligence,  destroy  the  eucharist,  i.e. 
the  sacrifice,  let  him  do  penance  one  year,  or 
three  Quadrigesimas.  If  he  let  it  fall  on  the  ground, 
carelessly,  he  must  sing  fifty  Psalms.  Whoever 
neglects  to  take  care  of  the  sacrifice,  so  that  worms 
get  into  it,  or  it  lose  its  colour  or  taste,  must  do 
penance  twenty  or  thirty  days  ;  and  the  sacrifice 
must  be  burned  in  the  fire.  Whoever  turns  up  the 
cup  at  the  close  of  the  solemnity  of  the  mass, 
must  do  penance  forty  days.     If  a  drop  from  the 


124  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

cup  should  fall  on  the  altar,  the  minister  must  suck 
up  the  drop,  and  do  penance  three  days ;  and  the 
linen  cloth,  which  the  drop  touched,  must  be  wash- 
ed three  times  over  the  cup,  and  the  water  in  which 
it  is  washed,  be  cast  into  the  fire."  Charlemagne 
made  some  attempt  to  restrain  these  growing  su- 
perstitions, but  did  not  effect  much. 
J  The  fundamentals  of  the  Christian  faith  we^^in- 
deed  still  taught,  both  by  the  Latin  and  Greek 
writers,  but  with  great  mixture  of  error. — The 
efficacy  of  the  merits  of  the  Saviour  was  acknow- 
ledged, and  yet  tacitly  depreciated  by  teaching 
that  man  can  appease  God,  either  by  undergoing 
voluntary  punishments,  or  by  offering  him  gifts 
and  presents ;  and  by  laying  great  stress  upon  the 
works  and  merits  of  holy  men,  and  especially  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  "  The  whole  of  religion  or  pie- 
ty consisted,  in  this  and  some  subsequent  centu- 
ries, in  founding,  enriching,  embellishing  and  en- 
larging, churches  and  chapels ;  in  hunting  after, 
and  venerating,  the  relics  of  holy  meq  ;  in  secur- 
ing the  patronage  of  deceased  saints  with  God, 
by  gifts  and  superstitious  rites  and  ceremonies  ; 
in  worshipping  the  images  and  statues  of  saints  ; 
and  in  performing  pilgrimages  to  holy  places,  espe- 
cially to  Palestine  ;  and  in  other  similar  practices." 
■i  IV.  The  little  learning  that  still  remained  in  this 
age  of  darkness,  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  priests 
and  monks.  The  former  were  required  at  their 
ordination,  to  be  able  to  read,  to  sing,  and  to  repeat 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  and  Psalter,  and  to 
ascertain  the  feast  days.  Those  among  the  La- 
tins that  distinguished  themselves  in  any  meas- 
ure by  their  learning,  were  chiefly  Britons  and 
Irishmen.  Charlemagne  patronized  learning,  and 
used  considerable  exertions  to  promote  it. 


EIGHTH    CENTUKY.  125 

Few  writers  of  this  century,  deserve  any  partic- 
ular mention.  The  nnost  distinguished  of  the 
Greeks,  was  John  Damascenus,  a  man  of  respect- 
able talents,  and  of  some  eloquence.  Of  the  La- 
tins, among  the  best  was  Charlemagne.  He  was 
not  only  a  great  general  and  statesman,  but  also  a 
good  scholar,  and  a  great  promoter  of  learning. 
He  understood  Latin  and  Greek,  was  well  read  in 
civil  history,  and  was  no  contemptible  theologian. 
He  published  a  collection  of  Edicts,  and  four  books 
against  image-worship.  Beda,  commonly  called 
the  venerable  Bede^  was  an  Englishman  of  great 
learning  for  the  times.  He  wrote,  among  other 
things,  an  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Great  Britain, 
from  the  invasion  of  Julius  Csesar  to  the  year  731. 
Alcuin,  also  an  Englishman, — as  an  orator,  poet, 
philosopher,  and  theologian,  was,  perhaps,  the 
most  distinguished  man  of  his  age.  His  writings 
consist  chiefly  of  expositions  of  the  Scriptures, 
letters  and  treatises  on  theology  and  science.  i 

V.  The  greatest  controversy  that  disturbed  the  y 
peace  of  the  church  in  this  age,  related  to  the  wor- 
ship of  sacred  images.  The  controversy  origina- 
ted in  Greece,  and  thence  spread  over  the  East, 
and  the  West,  producing  great  harm  both  to  church 
and  state.  The  contest  against  images  was  chief- 
ly sustained  by  the  Greek  emperors,  first,  Leo,  the 
Isaurian,  and  after  him,  Constantine,  his  son.  Leo 
issued  an  edict,  in  the  year  726,  commanding  all 
images  of  saints,  with  the  exception  of  that  of 
Christ  upon  the  cross,  to  be  removed  out  of  the 
churches,  and  the  worship  of  them  to  be  wholly 
discontinued  and  abrogated.  This  gave  great  of- 
fence, and  produced  a  civil  war  ;  for  the  people, 
either  spontaneously,  or  being  instructed  by  the 
priests  and  monks,  to  whom  the  images  were  a 
11* 


126  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

source  of  gain,  regarded  the  emperor  as  an  apos- 
tate from  the  true  religion  ;  and  that  therefore  they 
were  freed  from  their  oath  of  allegiance.  In  Italy, 
the  Roman  pontiffs,  Gregory  II.  and  Gregory  III. 
were  the  principal  supporters  of  image  worship, 
and  authors  of  the  revolt.  The  former  did  not 
hesitate  to  say,  that,  in  his  view,  the  emperor  had 
rendered  himself  unworthy  of  the  name  and  pri- 
vileges of  a  true  Christian.  In  this  dispute  the 
Roman  pontiffs  lost  a  large  portion  of  their  terri- 
tory, which  was  annexed  by  the  emperor,  to  the 
see  of  Constantinople.  Constantino,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Leo,  called  a  council  that  met  at  Con- 
stantinople in  the  year  754,  to  examine  and  decide 
this  distressing  controversy.  By  the  Greeks,  this 
is  called  the  seventh  general  council.  It  was  com- 
posed of  three  hundred  and  thirty-eight  bishops,  a 
greater  number  than  had  ever  before  been  assem- 
bled in  any  council.  They  decided  that  all  wor- 
ship of  images  was  contrary  to  the  Scriptures,  and 
to  the  sense  of  the  church,  in  the  purest  ages  ;  that 
it  was  idolatry,  and  forbidden  by  the  second  com- 
mandment. They,  also  maintained  that  the  use  of 
images  in  churches,  and  places  of  worship,  was  a 
custom  borrowed  from  the  pagans ;  that  it  was  of 
dangerous  tendency,  and  ought  to  be  abolished. 
But  all  this  did  not  end  the  controversy.  Irene,  a 
wicked  woman,  who  had  murdered  her  husband, 
Leo  IV.  amd  usurped  the  government,  was  a  fa- 
vourer of  image  worship.  She  therefore,  in  league 
with  the  Roman  pontiff'  Hadrian,  assembled  a  coun- 
cil at  Nice,  in  Bithynia,  in  the  year  786,  called  the 
second  Nicene  council. — "  Here,  the  laws  of  the 
Emperors,  together  with  the  decrees  of  the  council 
of  Constantinople,  were  abrogated  ;  and  penalties 
were  denounced  against  those  who  should  maintain, 


EIGHTH    CENTURY.  127 

that  worship  and  adoration  were  to  be  given  only 
to  God."  In  these  controversies,  the  Britons,  Ger- 
mans, and  French,  took  a  middle  ground.  They 
held  that  images  should  be  retained  in  the  church- 
es ;  but  that  religious  worship  could  not  be  offered 
to  them,  without  dishonouring  the  Supreme  Being 
Charlemagne,  therefore,  in  the  year  794,  assem- 
bled a  council  of  three  hundred  bishops,  at  Frank- 
fort on  the  Maine.  This  council  forbade  the  wor- 
ship of  images.  The  western  bishops,  with  their 
emperor,  had  not  yet  learned  to  yield  implicit  sub- 
mission to  the  Roman  pontiff. 

Another  subject  of  contention  arose  in  this  cen- 
tury, viz  :  respecting  the  lorocession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  This  was  still  more  warmly  agitated  in 
the  following  century,  and  accelerated  the  separa- 
tion of  the  eastern  and  western  churches. 

The  ancient  sects,  the  Arians,  Manichseans, 
Marcionites,  Nestorians,  Monophysites,  and  Mo- 
nothelites,  still  existed,  and  even  revived,  in  many 
parts  of  the  East.  Considerable  disturbance  was 
produced  in  the  West,  near  the  close  of  this  centu- 
ry, by  Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel  in  Spain.  He  held 
that  Christ,  as  God,  was  by  nature,  and  truly,  the 
Son  of  God  ;  but  as  man,  he  was  the  Son  of  God, 
only  in  name,  and  by  adoption.  This  was  thought 
to  savour  of  the  Nestorian  error,  of  two  natures  in 
Christ ;  he  was  required  to  revoke  his  opinions, 
which  he  ostensibly  did.  His  followers  were  call- 
ed Adovtionists. 


128  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTOHIT. 


CENTURY   IX. 

1.  The  Church  still  extended  in  the  West. — 2.  Saracens  and 
Normans. — 3.  Ignorance  and  corrupt  lives  of  the  clergy. — 
4.  Pope  Joanna. — 5.  Power  and  profligacy  of  the  Pontiffs. — 
6.  Monkery. — 7.  Relics. — 8.  Learning  and  theology. — 9.  Con- 
troversies.— 10.  Grace  and  Predestination, — 11.  Contests  be- 
tween the  pontiffs  of  Rome  and  Constantinople. — 12.  Rites 
and  ceremonies. — 13.  Ancient  sects. 

I.  In  the  ninth  century,  Christianity  continued  to 
spread  among  the  nations  of  Europe.  Charle- 
magne, until  his  death,  A.  D.  814,  omitted  no 
means  which  he  deemed  requisite,  to  propagate 
and  establish  Christianity  among  the  Huns,  Sax- 
ons, Frieslanders,  and  others.  The  means  em- 
ployed, however,  it  is  to  be  regretted,  were  not 
always  justifiable.  Rewards  and  promises,  and 
sometimes  force,  were  employed.  Some  presby- 
ters sent  into  Carinthia,  in  lower  Pannonia,  adopted 
the  following  expedient,  which  was  very  success- 
ful. They  allowed  Christian  slaves  to  sit  at 
table  with  them,  while  their  pagan  masters  had 
to  eat  their  bread  and  meat  without  the  doors, 
and  had  to  drink  out  of  black  cups,  whereas  the 
servants  drank  from  gilded  cups.  For  the  pres- 
byters told  the  masters — "  You  unbaptized  persons 
are  not  worthy  to  eat  with  those  that  are  bap- 
tized." Lewis  the  Meek,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Charlemagne,  was  not  less  zealous  in  propaga- 
ting Christianity,  than  his  father.  By  him  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  into  Denmark  and   Sweden, 


NINTH    CENTURY.  129 

who  laboured  with  much  success.  Missionaries 
were  also  sent  from  Constantinople,  by  the  empress 
Theodora,  who  taught  the  Moesians,  Bulgarians, 
and  Gazari,  and  afterwards  the  Bohemians  and 
Moravians,  to  renounce  their  false  gods,  and  em- 
brace Christ.  The  Greek  emperor  Basil,  influ- 
enced the  warlike  Russians,  by  presents  and 
other  means,  when  he  had  made  a  peace  with 
them,  to  admit  Christian  teachers,  and  an  arch- 
bishop among  them,  which  was  the  commencement 
of  Christianity  in  that  country.  The  missionaries 
that  went  among  the  heathen  in  this  age,  are  said 
to  have  been  men  of  more  piety  and  virtue,  for  the 
most  part,  than  those  who  undertook  the  conver- 
sion of  the  pagans  in  the  preceding  century.  Yet 
the  religion  which  they  inculcated,  was  far  from 
that  simple  rule  of  truth  and  holiness,  which  the 
apostles  taught,  and  was  adulterated  by  many 
human  additions.  Among  the  nations  which 
they  converted,  too  many  relics  of  the  old  super- 
stitions were  suffered  to  remain.  This,  as  we 
have  seen,  had  been  the  principal  source  of  the 
corruption  of  Christianity,  down  from  the  apostles'* 
times ;  and  in  this  way,  indeed,  it  came  finally, 
in  its  external  rites  and  forms,  and  too  often  in  its 
spirit  also,  to  resemble  much  more  those  systems 
of  paganism,  to  which  it  succeeded,  than  that 
pure,  simple  system  of  faith  and  worship,  inculca- 
ted by  Christ  and  his  apostles. 

II.  In  Asia,  Africa,  Spain,  and  even  Italy,  the 
Christians  suffered  much  in  this  century  from  the 
Saracens.  Many  renounced  Christianity  and 
embraced  the  reUgion  of  their  conquerors,  for  the 
sake  of  peace ;  and  they  who  did  not,  sunk  into 
very  great  ignorance  and  indifference,  retaining 
almost  nothing  of  Christianity,  except  the  name, 


130  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

and  ti  few  religious  rites.  The  Normans,  a  fierce 
and  barbarous  people,  inhabiting  the  shores  of 
the  Baltic,  in  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden, 
had  long  practised  piracy  along  the  coasts  of  the 
German  and  Gallic  oceans.  But  in  this  century, 
they  became  much  more  bold,  and  made  frequent 
incursions  into  Germany,  Britain,  Friesland,  and 
especially  France,  plundering  and  devastating 
with  fire  and  sword  wherever  they  came.  These 
inroads  they  extended  sometimes  as  far  as  Spain, 
and  even  Italy.  They  destroyed  and  plundered 
many  churches  and  monasteries  in  all  these 
countries.  For  in  these  places  Were  deposited 
large  treasures,  partly  belonging  to  the  establish- 
ments, and  partly  deposited  there  for  safe  keeping. 
III.  There  is  a  general  complaint  by  the  histo- 
rians of  this  age,  of  the  ignorance  and  ungodly 
lives  of  the  clergy  and  monks.  Such  was  the 
ignorance  of  the  clergy  in  many  places,  that  few 
of  them  were  able  to  read  or  write,  or  to  express 
their  thoughts  with  accuracy  and  precision.  In 
the  council  of  Pavia,  A.  D.  850,  bishops  were  for- 
bidden to  keep  hounds  and  horses  for  hunting; 
or  to  have  superfluous  trains  of  horses  and  mules, 
and  gaudy  dresses,  for  vain  display.  The  council 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  A.  D.  836,  forbade  bishops 
getting  drunk.  They  complain  that  some  neglect- 
ed their  charges,  and  travelled  here  and  there,  not 
from  necessity,  but  to  gratify  their  avarice  or  love 
of  pleasure.  Of  the  presbyters,  and  inferior  cler- 
gy, they  complain  that  they  kept  women  in  their 
houses,  to  the  scandal  of  the  ministry,  notwith- 
standing the  attempts  of  former  councils  and  prin- 
ces to  remove  the  evil.  Also,  that  presbyters  turn 
bailiffs,  frequent  taverns,  pursue  filthy  lucre,  prac- 
tise usury,  conduct  shamefully  and  lewdly  in  the 


^'i^-TIi    CENTJRV.  131 

houses  they  visit,  and  do  not  blush  to  indulge  in 
revelry  and  drunkenness.  Thoy  say  of  the  nun- 
neries, that  in  some  places,  they  seemed  to  be  rather 
brothels  than  monasteries.  The  council  of  Mentz, 
A.  D.  888,  decreed  that  the  clergy  be  wholly  for- 
bidden to  have  females  resident  in  their  houses. 

Various  causes  operated  to  produce  this  ignorant 
and  degraded  state  of  the  clergy  ;  among  others, 
such  as  t\ie  following — the  calamities  of  the  times, 
occasioned  by  the  incursions  and  depredations  of 
the  plundering  Normans,  and  the  perpetual  wars 
between  Lewis  the  Meek,  and  his  sons  and  poster- 
ity ;  the  gross  ignorance  of  the  nobility,  and  the 
vast  wealth  possessed  by  the  churches  and  monas- 
teries. If  the  son  of  a  high  nobleman  wanted  en- 
ergy and  talent  necessary  to  qualify  him  for  other 
employments,  an  elevated  place  was  sought  for 
him  among  the  dignitaries  of  the  church.  The 
patrons  of  churches,  not  wishing  to  have  their 
own  vices  reproved  and  exposed,  gave  the  prefer- 
ence to  weak,  ignorant,  and  inefficient  men,  for 
parish  ministers,  and  guardians  of  the  souls  of 
men.  The  bishops  and  heads  of  the  monasteries, 
held  much  real  or  landed  estate,  by  feudal  tenure ; 
and  therefore,  whenever  a  war  broke  out,  they  were 
summoned  to  the  field  with  the  quota  of  soldiers 
which  they  were  bound  to  furnish  to  their  sove- 
reigns. 

IV.  Between  Leo  IV.  who  died,  A.  D.  855,  and 
Benedict  III.,  a  woman,  it  is  said,  who  concealed 
her  sex,  and  assumed  the  name  of  John,  made 
good  her  way  to  the  pontifical  throne  by  her  learn- 
ing and  genius,  and  governed  the  church  for  more 
than  two  years,  with  reputation.  The  truth  of  this 
story  has  been  much  disputed  ;  and  both  sides  of 
the  question  have  had  many  and  able  advocates. 


132  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

"  DuriiifT  the  five  subsequent  centuries,"  says 
Dr.  M(3slicim,  "  the  witnesses  to  this  extraordina- 
ry event  are  witliout  number ;  nor  did  any  one 
prior  to  the  reformation  by  Luther,  regard  the  thing 
as  either  incredible,  or  disgraceful  to  the  church. 
But  in  the  seventeenth  century,  learned  men,  not 
only  among  the  Roman  Catholics,  but  otliers  also, 
exerted  all  the  powers  of  their  ingenuity,  both  to 
invalidate  the  testimony,  on  which  the  truth  of  the 
story  rests,  and  to  confute  it  by  an  accurate  com- 
putation of  dates.  But  there  still  are  very  learned 
men,  who,  while  they  concede  that  much  false- 
hood is  mixed  with  the  truth,  maintain  that  the 
controversy  is  not  wholly  settled.  Something  must 
necessarily  have  taken  place  at  Rome,  to  give  rise 
to  this  most  uniform  report  of  so  many  ages ;  but 
what  it  was  that  occurred,  does  not  yet  appear." 

V.  The  Roman  pontiffs  were  elected  by  the  vote 
of  the  whole  body  of  the  clergy  and  people  of 
Rome  ;  but  the  emperors  must  approve  of  their  ap- 
pointment before  they  were  consecrated.  Few  of 
those  who  were  raised  to  that  high  office,  in  this 
century,  can  be  commended  for  their  learning, 
wisdom,  or  virtue  ;  on  the  contrary,  most  of  them, 
by  their  numerous  vices,  their  arrogance,  and 
lust  of  power,  have  entailed  disgrace  upon  their 
memory. 

The  vices,  and  general  profligacy  of  the  Roman 
pontiffs  did  not,  however,  in  these  unhappy  times, 
prevent  the  increase  of  their  power  and  authority, 
both  in  church  and  state.  They  took  advantage, 
of  the  violent  contests  that  arose  among  the  de- 
scendants of  Charlemagne,  to  increase  their  polit- 
ical influence.  They  began  to  inculcate  the  doc- 
trine, that  in  religious  matters  their  authority  was 
supreme — "  That  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  consti- 


NfNTH    CENTjrWY.  133 

tilted,  by  Jesus  Christ,  a  legislator,  and  judge  over 
the  whole  church,  and  thcrclbre,  that  other  bishops 
derived  all  their  authority  solely  Irom  him  ;  and 
that  councils  could  decide  nothing,  without  his  di- 
rection and  approbation."  To  support  this  high 
claim,  there  was  need  of  ancient  documents  and 
records,  by  which  it  might  be  defended  against  the 
assaults  of  opposers.  These  were  soon  forged  and 
furnished,  in  sufficient  number,  by  the  monks.  The 
decrees  of  Councils,  never  before  heard  of,  were 
now  discovered  ;  by  which  the  universal  suprem- 
acy of  the  pope  was  established  from  the  earliest 
times.  The  French  bishops  made  vigorous  op- 
position to  these  forgeries ;  but  they  were  put 
down  by  the  pertinacity  of  the  Roman  pontiffs. 
And  these  latter  did  not  fail  to  improve  them,  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  ancient  system  of  church  gov- 
ernment, the  weakening  of  the  authority  of  bishops. 
the  increase  of  their  own  revenues  and  emolu- 
ments, and  the  abridging  of  the  prerogatives  of 
kings  and  princes  ;  of  which  the  history  of  sub- 
sequent centuries  will  furnish  sufficient  proof. 

VI.  Monkery  in  this  age,  was  in  the  highest 
repute.  Many  examples  occurred,  during  this 
century,  in  Italy,  France,  Spain  and  Germany, 
of  kings,  and  dukes,  and  counts,  abandoning  their 
honours  and  their  wealth,  and  voluntarily  retiring 
to  monasteries,  to  devote  themselves  to  the  service 
of  God.  And  many,  who  in  their  lifetime,  could 
not  consent  to  abandon  society,  would  yet  demand 
the  monastic  garb,  when  dying,  and  actually  put 
it  on  before  they  left  the  world  ;  that  they  might 
enjoy  the  prayers,  and  spiritual  succour  of  this 
blessed  fraternity.  Such  was  the  estimation  in 
which  they  were  held,  that  abbots  and  monks 
12 


134  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

were  often  employed  by  emperors  and  kings,  to 
perform  the  functions  of  ambassadors,  commis* 
sioners,  judges,  and  ministers  of  state.  Yet  they 
who  conferred  such  honours  upon  monks,  and  the 
monastic  life,  did.  not  deny  that  m6st  of  that  class 
lived  vicious  lives.  Lewis  the  Meek,  especially, 
made  efforts  to  reform  them,  and  to  bring  them 
back  to  a  strict  observance  of  their  monastic  rules. 
He  employed  one  Benedict,  a  man  distinguished 
for  piety  and  the  fear  of  God,  to  reform  the  mon- 
asteries, first  in  Aquitaine,  and  then  throughout 
the  kingdom  of  France.  He  laboured  faithfully 
in  this  way,  and  succeeded  in  banishing  the  greater 
vices,  and  introducing  a  stricter  and  more  uniform 
discipline  among  them  ;  but  from  various  causes, 
it  gradually  declined  again,  so  that  in  a  little 
while,  it  was  no  better  than  before. 

VII.  Relics,  in  this  age,  were  in  great  repute, 
and  were  sought  with  great  diligence.  Many 
made  long  journeys  to  the  East  in  order  to  procure 
them.  Nor  did  they  return  empty.  The  crafty 
Greeks  always  found  means  to  furnish  them  with 
spurious  relics,  in  exchange  for  their  genuine  coin. 
These  relics  were  regarded  as  possessing  wonder- 
ful efficacy  in  protecting  from  dangers,  sickness, 
&c  ,  and  especially  against  the  assaults  of  malig- 
nant spirits  ;  so  that  scarcely  any  one  ventured  to 
be  without  something  of  the  kind.  Great  reliance 
too  was  placed  upon  the  patronage  of  the  saints. 
Without  the  patronage  of  some  glorified  saint, 
they  believed  that  they  should  never  be  able  to 
find  God  propitious  to  them.  Each  separate 
church,  therefore,  and  almost  every  individual 
person,  sought  for  some  particular  and  appropri- 
ate patron.     New  tutelar  saints,  therefore,  were 


NIXTH    CENTURY.  135 

created  almost  every  day.  And  in  order  that 
there  might  be  enough  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
people,  the  monks  wrote  the  lives  of  many  that 
never  lived. 

VIII.  Learning  in  the  ninth  century,  was  in  a 
very  low  and  languishing  state.  In  the  East, 
there  were  some  who  distinguished  themselves  for 
their  learning,  particularly  Photius,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  The  Arabians,  or  Saracens,  be- 
gan in  this  century  to  cultivate  the  sciences  exten- 
sively. Charlemagne  and  his  successors,  Lewis 
the  Meek,  and  Charles  the  Bald,  patronized  learn- 
ing and  learned  men  ;  and  established  schools  in 
many  places  for  the  instruction  of  the  youth.  In 
England,  king  Alfred  the  Great  was  a  great  culti- 
vator and  promoter  of  learning.  He  may  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  University  of 
Oxford. 

Few  among  the  Greeks  attempted  to  interpret 
the  Scriptures ;  and  the  most  of  those  who  did, 
contented  themselves  with  collecting  passages 
from  the  writings  of  the  ancient  fathers,  and  at- 
taching them  to  the  declarations  of  the  sacred 
volume.  This  species  of  exposition  of  Scripture, 
compiled  from  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  were 
called  catenae^  or  chains.  Among  the  Latins,  the 
interpreters  of  Scripture  were  far  more  numerous, 
than  among  the  Greeks.  Charlemagne,  in  the 
preceding  century,  had  awakened  an  ardour  for 
the  study  and  exposition  of  the  sacred  volume. 
Some  few  of  these  were  not  without  merit,  but  the 
most  of  them  were  either  compilers  from  the 
fathers,  or  such  as  sought  for  mystical,  recondite 
senses  of  Scripture.  About  the  number  of  these 
se7ises,  they  were  not  agreed ;  some  maintaining 


130  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

that  there  wore  thrce^  olhers,  four  or  Jive,  and 
others,  seven.  The  doctrines  of  religion  were  es- 
tablished by  authority,  not  of  the  Scriptures,  but 
of  the  ancient  lathers  and  councils.  John  Scotus 
Erigcna,  a  distinguished  scholar  of  the  age,  ven- 
tured to  explain  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  in  a. 
philosophical  manner.  But  this  met  with  general 
disapprobation  ;  for  the  divines  of  that  age  would 
allow  no  place  for  reason  and  philosophy,  in  mat- 
ters of  religion.  The  mystic  tlteology,  that  had 
been  long  in  vogue  in  the  East,  became  popular 
in  the  West  in  the  ninth  century,  in  consequence 
of  the  introduction  of  the  works  of  Dionysius,  and 
their  translation  into  the  Latin  language. 
,  IX.  The  controversy  about  the  worship  of  im- 
ages continued  to  be  fiercely  agitated  among  the 
Greeks,  during  a  great  part  of  this  century.  The 
emperors  were  generally  opposed  to  the  worship 
of  images  ;  while  the  bishops  and  especially  the 
monks,  were  generally  in  favour  of  it.  The  em- 
peror Leo,  the  Armenian,  assembled  a  council  at 
Constantinople,  A.  D,  814,  in  which  the  decrees 
of  the  Nicene  council,  held  in  the  preceding  cen- 
tury, in  favour  of  image  worship,  were  rescinded  ; 
but  no  penal  laws  were  enacted  against  the  wor- 
shippers of  them.  Michael,  the  Stammerer,  the 
successor  of  Leo,  attempted  to  pursue  a  mild  and 
gentle  course ;  but  was  compelled  to  depart  from 
it,  and  to  chastise  the  restless  faction  that  served 
images,  and  especially  the  turbulent-  monks. — 
Among  the  uses  made  of  their  images  were  the 
following.  "  They  lighted  candles  before  them  ; 
burned  incense  to  them;  sung  to  their  praise; 
made  supplications  to  them ;  used  them  as  spon- 
sors for  their  baptized  children  ;  scraped  off  the 
colours  from  the  pictures  and  mixed  them  with 


NINTH    CENTURY.  137 

the  wine  of  the  eucharist ;  and  placed  the  bread 
of  benediction  in  the  hands  of  the  images,  in  order 
to  receive  it  as  from  them."  The  decisions  of  the 
Nicene  council  were  re-estabhshed  by  a  council 
held  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  869,  and  image-wor- 
ship was  restored  among  the  Greeks.  Thus  the 
cause  of  image- worship  at  last  gained  the  victory, 
after  a  contest  of  more  than  a  hundred  years  ;  and 
obtained  a  footing  in  all  the  East,  except  in  the 
church  of  Armenia.  In  the  West,  considerable 
opposition  was  made  to  image-worship  ;  although 
it  was  warmly  patronized  by  the  Roman  pontiffs. 
Most  of  the  European  Christians  took  a  middle 
ground  between  the  Iconoclasts,  and  the  image- 
worshippers  ;  and  thought  they  might  be  used  as 
helps  to  the  memory,  but  not  worshipped.  A 
council,  assembled  at  Paris,  A.  D.  824,  decided 
that  the  images  of  Christ  and  the  saints  were  not 
indeed  to  be  cast  out  of  the  temples,  yet  that  re- 
ligious worship  should  by  no  means  be  paid  to 
them.  But  in  this  as  in  other  matters,  the  author- 
ity and  influence  of  the  popes  finally  prevailed  ; 
and  the  worship  of  images  was  established  through- 
out the  West. 

The  controversy  which  commenced  in  the  pre- 
ceding century,  respecting  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  broke»out  in  this  century  with  greater 
vehemence,  and  became  general  between  the  whole 
Latin  and  Greek  church.  The  Greeks  maintained 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father 
only  ;  the  Latins,  that  he  proceeds  from  the  Father 
a7id  the  Son,  which  they  expressed  by  adding  to 
the  creed  the  words  filioqiie.  The  dispute,  there- 
fore, was  about  these  single  words  ;  which  di- 
vides the  Latin  and  Greek  churches  to  the  present 
day. 

12* 


138  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORV. 

Besides  these  old  controversies,  a  new  one 
arose  among  the  Latins,  respecting  the  manner 
in  which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  present 
in  tlie  Lord's  supper.  The  faith  of  the  church 
upon  this  point,  previously  to  tliis  time,  had  not 
been  particularly  defined  ;  nor  had  any  council 
prescribed  any  particular  mode  of  belief  ui)on  the 
subject.  But  in  the  year  831,  Paschasius  Rad- 
bert,  a  monk  and  abbot  of  Corbey,  broached  the 
doctrine  of  what  has  been  since  called  traiisub- 
stantiation.  He  taught  "  that  in  the  Lord's  sup- 
per, after  the  consecration,  there  remained  only 
the  form  and  appearance  of  bread  and  wine  ;  and 
that  the  real  body,  or  the  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ, 
were  present ;  and,  indeed,  the  identical  body^ 
that  was  born  of  ike  virgin^  suffered  on  the  cross y 
and  arose  from  the  tomby  This  seemed  to  be 
new  and  strange  doctrine  to  many,  especially  the 
last  part  of  it.  A  number  of  opponents  were 
called  out,  among  whom  were  Ratramn,  and  John 
Scotus ;  but  they  also  differed  among  themselves. 
The  disputants  in  this  controversy,  as  is  common, 
taxed  each  other  with  odious  consequences,  grow- 
ing out  of  their  opinions. 

X.  Another  controversy  arose  at  this  same 
time  respecting  divine  grace  and  predestination. 
One  Godeschalcus,  a  Saxon  of  noble  birth,  but  a 
monk,  maintained  that  God  had  predestinated 
some  to  everlasting  life,  and  others  to  the  punish- 
ments of  hell.  He  was  first  condemned  by  Mau- 
rus,  in  a  council  held  at  Mentz,  A.  D.  848 ;  and 
ag?.;n  by  Hincmar,  who  was  a  friend  of  Maurus, 
and  archbishop  of  Rheims  in  France.  As  he 
would  not  renounce  his  sentiments,  which  he  said, 
and  said  truly,  were  those  of  Augustine,  Hincmar 
deprived  him  of  his  priestly  office,  ordered  him  to 


NINTH    CENTURY'.  139 

be  severely  whipped,  and  then  to  be  shut  up  in 
prison.  There  he  remained  near  twenty  years 
until  his  death  ;  retaining  firmly  to  the  last,  the 
sentiments  he  had  embraced.  But  this  by  no 
means  settled  the  controversy. 

While  Godeschalcus  lay  in  prison,  his  cause  was 
defended  with  energy  by  many  able  and  discerning 
men,  both  orally  and  in  writing,  while  others 
maintained  that  both  he  and  his  opinions  were 
justly  dealt  with.  The  contest  growing  warm, 
Charles  the  Bald,  in  the  year  858,  ordered  a  coun- 
cil to  be  held  at  Chiersey,  in  which,  through  the 
influence  of  Hincmar,  the  decision  of  the  former 
council  was  confirmed ;  and  Godeschalcus  was 
again  condemned  as  a  heretic.  This  council  set 
forth  their  creed  on  the  subject  of  dispute  in  the 
four  following  articles. 

1.  "  Almighty  God  created  man  without  sin, 
upright,  endued  with  freewill ;  and  placed  him  in 
Paradise ;  and  purposed  his  continuance  in  the 
holiness  of  uprightness.  Man,  abusing  freewill, 
sinned,  and  fell,  and  the  whole  human  race  became 
a  mass  of  corruption.  But  the  good  and  righteous 
God  elected,  out  of  that  mass  of  perdition,  accor- 
ding to  his  foreknowledge,  those  whom  he  predes- 
tinated unto  eternal  life  through  grace,  and  fore- 
ordained eternal  life  for  them  :  but  the  others, 
whom  in  his  righteous  judgment  he  left  in  the  mass 
of  perdition,  he  foresaw,  would  perish  ;  but  did  not 
fore-ordain,  that  they  should  perish  ;  yet  being 
just,  he  fore-ordained  eternal  punishment  to  be 
their  portion.  And  thus  we  affirm  but  one  pre- 
destination of  God,  which  relates  either  to  the 
gift  of  grace,  or  to  the  retributions  of  justice. 

2.  "  We  lost  freedom  of  will,  in  the  first  man  ; 
which  we  recover  by  Christ,  our  Lord  ;  and  we 


140  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

have  freewill  to  good,  when  prevented  and  aid- 
ed by  grace  ;  and  have  freewill  to  evil,  when 
forsaken  of  grace.  That  we  hgive  freewill,  is  be- 
cause we  are  made  free  by  grace,  and  are  healed 
of  corruption  by  it. 

3.  "  Almighty  God  wills,  that  all  men,  without 
exception,  should  become  saved  ;  and  yet  all  men 
will  not  be  saved.  And  \\)^\.  some  are  saved,  arises 
from  the  gratuity  of  Him  who  saves  ;  but  that  some 
perish,  arises  from  their  desert  of  perdition. 

4.  "  As  there  never  was,  is,  or  will  be,  a  man, 
whose  nature  was  not  assumed  by  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ ;  so  there  never  was,  is,  or  will  be,  a  man, 
for  whom  Christ  has  not  died  ;  and  this,  notwith- 
standing all  are  not  redeemed  by  the  mystery  of 
his  passion.  That  all  are  not  redeemed  by  the 
mystery  of  his  passion,  is  not  owing  to  the  [limit- 
ed] magnitude  and  value  of  the  price ;  but  is  the 
fault  of  unbelievers,  or  of  them  who  do  not  believe 
with  the  faith  that  works  by  love.  For  the  cup 
of  human  salvation,  which  is  provided  for  our 
weakness,  and  has  divine  efficacy,  contains  what 
might  benefit  all ;  but  if  it  be  not  drunk,  it  will 
not  produce  healing." 

But  another  council,  assembled  at  Valence^  in 
the  year  855,  in  which  Remigius,  bishop  of  Lyons, 
presided,  set  forth  other  decisions,  in  opposition  to 
the  former,  and  sustained  the  cause  of  Godeschal- 
cus.  With  the  decisions  of  this  council,  coincid- 
ed also  those  of  the  council  of  Langres,  A.  D. 
859  ;  and  those  of  the  council  of  Toul,  A.  D.  860, 
composed  of  the  bishops  of  fourteen  provinces. 
The  council  of  Valence  published  twenty-three 
canons  ;  five  of  which  contain  the  doctrinal  views 
of  the  friends  and  defenders  of  Godeschalcus. 
The  substance  of  them  is  as  follows. 


NINTH    CENTURY.  141 

Can.  II.  "That  God  foresees,  and  eternally  fore- 
saw, both  the  good  which  the  righteous  will  per- 
form, and  the  evil  which  the  wicked  will  do."  Dan. 
ii.  29.  <■<■  We  hold  faithfully,  and  judge  it  should 
be  held,  that  he  foresaw,  that  the  righteous  would 
certainly  become  righteous,  through  his  grace  ; 
and  by  the  same  grace,  would  obtain  eternal  bless- 
edness ;  and  he  foresaw,  that  the  wicked  would  be 
wicked,  through  their  own  perverseness ;  and 
would  be  such  as  must  be  condemned  by  his  justice 
to  eternal  punishment,"  according  to  Psalm  Ixii. 
12,  and  Rom.  ii.  7—9,  and  2  Thess.  i.  7—10. 
"  Nor  has  the  prescience  of  God  imposed  upon 
any  bad  man  a  necessity,  that  he  cannot  be  other 
than  bad  ;  but  what  he  would  become,  by  his  own 
free  volition,  God,  as  one  who  knows  all  things  be- 
fore they  come  to  pass,  foresaw,  by  his  omnipo- 
tent and  unchangeable  majesty.  Nor  do  we  be- 
lieve, that  any  one  is  condemned  by  a  divine  pre- 
judication ;  but  according  to  the  deserts  of  his 
own  wickedness.  Nor  do  the  wicked  perish,  be- 
cause they  could  not  become  good  ;  but  because 
they  ivould  not  become  good,  and  through  their 
own  fault,  remained  in  the  mass  of  condemnation, 
or  in  their  original  and  actual  sin. 

Can.  III.  "  x-Vs  to  the  predestination  of  God,  we 
decide,  and  faithfully  decide,  according  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  apostle  ;"  Rom.  ix.  21—23.  "  We 
confidently  confess  a  predestination  of  the  elect, 
unto  life  ;  and  a  predestination  of  the  wicked,  unto 
death.  But  in  the  election  of  those  to  be  saved, 
the  mercy  of  God  precedes  their  good  deserts  ;  and 
in  the  condemnation  of  those  who  are  to  perish, 
their  ill  deserts  precede  the  righteous  judgment  of 
God.  In  his  predestination,  God  only  determined 
what  he  himself  would  do,  either  in  his  gratuitous 


142  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTOKY. 

mercy,  or  in  his  righteous  judgment." — "  In  the 
wicked,  he  foresaw  their  wickedness,  because  it  is 
from  themselves  ;  he  did  not  predesti?iale  it,  be- 
cause it  is  not  from  him.  The  punishment  indeed, 
consequent  upon  their  ill  desert,  he  foresaw,  being 
a  God  who  foresees  all  things  ;  and  idso  p7'edesti- 
natecl^  because  he  is  a  just  God,  in  whom,  as  St. 
Augustine  says,  there  is  both  a  fixed  purpose,  and 
a  certain  foreknowledge,  in  regard  to  all  things 
whatever." — "  But  that  some  are  predestinated  to 
vjickedness^  by  a  divine  power,  so  that  they  cannot 
he  of  a7Wther  character^  we  not  only  do  not  believe  ; 
but  if  there  are  those  who  will  believe  so  great  a 
wrong,  we,  as  well  as  the  council  of  Orange,  with 
all  detestation,  declare  them  anathema. ''"' 

Can.  IV.  In  this  canon,  they  disapproved  of  the 
sentiments  of  some,  who  held  "  that  the  blood  of 
Christ  was  shed,  even  for  those  ungodly  ones  who 
had  been  punished  with  eternal  damnation,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world  to  the  time  of  Christ's 
passion."  And  they  held,  "  that  this  price  was 
paid  (only)  for  those  of  whom  our  Lord  has  said, 
"  As  Moses  lifted  up  the  serpent,"  &c.  "  that  every 
one  that  believeth  in  him,''''  &c.  John  iii.  14 — 16. 
"  And  the  apostle  says,  Christ  was  once  offered  to 
bear  the  sins  o^  many.'''' — "  Moreover,  the  four  ar- 
ticles, adopted  without  due  consideration  by  tho 
synod  of  our  brethren,  (at  Chiersey,  A.  D.  853,) 
on  account  of  their  inutility,  and  indeed  their  inju- 
rious tendency,  and  error,  contrary  to  the  truth  ; 
as  also  those  other,  (of  John  Scotus,)  unfitly  set 
forth  in  xix,  syllogisms  :  and  in  which,  notwith- 
standing the  boast,  that  they  are  not  the  result  of 
philosophy,  there  appears  to  be  rather  the  fabrica- 
tion of  the  devil,  than  an  exhibition  of  the  faith  ; 
we  wholly  explode,  as  not  to  be  listened  to  by  the 


NINTH    CENTLRY.  143 

faithful  ;  and  we  enjoin,  by  the  authority  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  that  such,  and  all  similar  statements, 
be  looked  upon  as  dangerous,  and  to  be  avoided. 
And  the  introducers  of  (such)  novelties,  we  judge, 
ought  to  be  censured." 

Can,  V.  This  canon  maintains  the  necessity  of 
a  saint's  persevering  in  holiness,  in  order  to  his 
salvation. 

Can.  VI.  In  regard  to  saving  grace,  "  and  free- 
will, which  was  impaired  by  sin,  in  the  first  man  ; 
but  is  recovered  and  made  whole  again,  by  Jesus 
Christ,  in  all  believers  in  him,"  this  council  hold 
with  various  councils  and  pontiffs  ;  and  reject  the 
"  trash  vended  by  various  persons." 

XI.  The  contests  between  the  pontiffs  of  Rome 
and  Constantinople,  were  kept  up  with  great  vio- 
lence ;  and  before  the  close  of  this  century,  seem 
to  have  issued  in  something  like  a  final  separation 
between  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches.  Doctrines 
were  brought  into  the  dispute,  but  the  chief  cause  of 
contention,  was  the  extent  of  territory  and  prero- 
gative. The  Roman  pontiff  claimed  the  provinces 
that  had  been  wrested  from  him  in  the  preceding 
century  ;  namely,  Illyricum,  Macedonia,  Epirus, 
Achaia,  Thessaly  and  Sicily,  but  could  never  re- 
cover them.  Pope  Nicholas  I.  in  a  council  at 
Rome,  A.  D.  862,  pronounced  Photius,  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  together  with  his  adherents,  to  be 
unworthy  of  Christian  communion.  Photius  gave 
back  the  same  measure  he  had  received,  and  ex- 
communicated Nicholas,  in  the  council  of  Constan- 
tinople, A.  D.  866.  Photius  charged  the  Romans 
with  five  enormities,  which  he  esteemed  very  great; 
and  by  which  we  may  see  the  difference  then  ex- 
isting between  the  East  and  West  in  regard  to  doc- 
trines.    "  First,  that  they  deemed  it  proper  to  fast 


144  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

on  the  seventh  day  of  the  week,  or  the  Sabbath 
Secondly,  that  in  the  first  week  of  lent,  they  per- 
mitted milk  and  cheese.  Thirdly,  that  they  wholly 
disapproved  of  the  marriage  of  priests.  Fourth- 
ly, that  they  thought  none  but  the  bishops  could  an- 
oint the  baptized  with  the  holy  oil  or  chrism  ; 
and  of  course  that  they  anointed  a  second  time, 
those  who  had  been  anointed  by  presbyters.  And 
ffthly,  that  they  had  adulterated  the  Constantino- 
politan  creed,  by  adding  to  it  the  words  fdioque  : 
and  thus  taught,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  did  not  pro- 
ceed from  the  Father  only,  but  also  from  the  Son." 
XII.  The  public  rites  and  ceremonies  Qonimuedi 
to  be  increased ;  and  a  number  undertook  to  pub- 
lish treatises  in  explanation  of  them.  The  new 
saints  canonized,  greatly  increased  the  number  of 
saints'  days.  The  great  object  was  to  please  the 
eyes  and  ears  of  the  people,  to  excite  an  interest 
and  keep  up  attention.  Hence  the  splendid  furni- 
ture of  the  temples,  the  numerous  wax  candles 
burning  at  mid-day,  the  multitude  of  pictures  and 
statues,  the  decorations  of  the  altars,  the  frequent 
processions,  the  splendid  dresses  of  the  priests,  and 
masses  appropriate  to  the  honour  of  saints.  The 
heathen  practice  of  trial  by  ordeal,  continued  to 
exist  in  most  countries  of  Europe  ;  and  the  church 
prescribed  the  particular  ceremonies  to  be  used  on 
the  occasion.  The  chief  of  these  modes  of  trial, 
were  those  by  water,  by  single  combat,  by  red  hot 
iron,  and  by  a  cross.  The  ordeal  by  immersion 
in  cold  water,  was  very  common  in  this  and  the 
following  centuries  ;  especially  for  criminals  of  a 
vulgar  rank  in  society.  It  was  sanctioned  by  pub- 
lic law  in  most  countries  of  Europe.  "  The  per- 
son to  be  tried  was  brought  to  the  church,  and  most 
solemnly  adjured  to  confess  the  fact,  if  he  was 


NINTH    CENTURY.  145 

guilty.  If  he  would  not  confess,  he  received  the 
sacrament,  was  sprinkled  with  holy  water,  and 
conducted  to  a  river  or  lake.  The  priest  then  ex- 
orcised the  water,  charging  it  not  to  receive  the 
criminal  if  he  were  guilty.  The  criminal  was 
now  stripped  and  bound  ;  and  a  rope  was  tied  to 
him,  by  which  to  draw  him  out,  if  he  sunk  to  a 
certain  depth.  When  cast  into  the  water,  if  he 
floated,  he  was  accounted  guilty  ;  but  if  he  sunk 
to  the  depth  marked  on  the  rope,  (sometimes  a 
yard  and  a  half,)  he  was  instantly  drawn  out,  and 
was  accounted  innocent."  The  ordeal  by  hot  wa- 
ter was  nearly  as  much  used,  and  was  considered 
gather  more  suitable  for  persons  of  quality.  After 
preparatory  ceremonies  similar  to  those  already 
described,  "  the  priest  heated  a  caldron  of  water 
until  it  boiled.  Then  taking  it  off  the  fire,  he  im- 
mersed in  it  a  stone,  which  he  held  suspended  by 
a  string,  to  the  depth  of  one,  two  or  three  palms  ; 
and  the  criminal  must  thrust  in  his  naked  hand 
and  arm,  and  seizing  the  stone,  pull  it  out.  His 
hand  and  arm  were  immediately  wrapped  up  in 
linen  cloths,  and  a  bag  draw»  over  the  whole  and 
sealed.  After  three  days,  the  hand  and  arm  were 
examined,  and  if  found  not  scalded,  the  man  was 
accounted  innocent."  The  trial  by  single  combat, 
although  not  particularly  sanctioned  by  the  church, 
is  one  of  those  remnants  of  barbarism  that  have 
come  down  to  our  times.  The  ordeal  by  red  hot 
iron,  "  was  esteemed  more  honourable,  than  the 
ordeals  by  water.  Sometimes  the  person  walked 
barefoot  over  nine  or  twelve  red  hot  plough-shares, 
treading  on  each.  But  more  frequently  he  carried 
a  hot  iron  in  his  naked  hands,  nine  times  the  length 
of  his  foot.  The  religious  rites  attending  this  or- 
deal,  were  very  similar  to  those  of  the  ordeal  by 
13 


146  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

hot  water.  The  form  of  ordeal  by  the  cross,  is 
more  uncertain.  Some  tliere  were,  who  opposed 
these  most  unrighteous  and  fallacious  modes  of 
trying  criminals,  as  Agobard,  bishop  of  Lyons  , 
but  others,  as  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  ap- 
proved and  defended  both  the  ordeals,  and  the  trial 
by  single  combat. 

XIII.  The  ancient  Christian  sects  still  existed 
in  many  places.  The  Ncstorians,  and  Monophy- 
sites,  lived  securely  under  the  protection  of  the 
Arabians  ;  and,  attentive  to  their  own  interests,  did 
not  cease  their  efforts  for  the  conversion  of  the  na- 
tions still  in  pagan  darkness.  The  Greeks  were 
engaged,  during  a  great  part  of  this  century,  in 
cruel  wars,  with  the  Paulicians,  a  sect,  said  by  their 
enemies  to  be  allied  to  the  Manichceans,  and  re- 
siding especially  in  Armenia.  This  unhappy  peo- 
ple deserving  a  better  fate,  were  cruelly  persecuted 
by  the  Greek  emperors,  and  frequently  compelled 
to  seek  refuge  among  the  Saracens,  with  whom 
they  entered  into  alliance,  and  in  turn  made  fierce 
-war  upon  the  Greek  provinces,  several  of  which 
were  ruined,  and  an»immense  number  of  persons 
cut  off  on  both  sides.  What  were  the  peculiar 
doctrines  of  this  numerous  sect,  does  not  certain- 
ly appear  ;  only  that  they  dissented  from  the  su- 
perstitions and  corruptions  of  the  times.  The 
Greek  writers  charge  them  with  the  following  : — 
1.  They  denied  that  this  lower  and  visible  world 
was  created  by  the  supreme  God  ;  and  distinguish- 
ed the  creator  of  the  world  and  of  human  bodies, 
from  the  God  whose  residence  is  in  heaven.  It 
was  on  account  of  this  dogma,  that  the  Greeks 
accounted  them  Manichseans. — 2.  They  contemn- 
ed the  virgin  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus  Christ : 
that  is,  they  refused  to  worship  her  ;  and  held  that 


TENTH    CENTURY.  147 

she  had  other  children  by  Joseph,  after  ^he  birth 
of  the  Saviour,  and  is  not  therefore  still  a  virgin. — 
3.  They  did  not  celebrate  the  Lord's  supper  ;  that 
is,  they  did  not  use  the  superstitious  additions  to 
it  then  observed. — 4.  They  loaded  the  cross  with 
contumely  ;  that  is,  they  retused  to  worship  the 
wood  of  the  cross. — 5.  They  rejected,  as  did  near- 
ly all  the  Gnostics,  the  books  composing  the  Old 
Testament. — 6.  They  excluded  presbyters  from 
the  administrations  of  the  church.  They  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  spirit  of  controversy,  especial- 
ly among  the  dominant  party,  in  an  intolerant  age, 
can  judge  how  little  such  charges  are  to  be  de- 
pended on,  when  the  accused  party  are  not  heard. 


CENTURY  X. 

1.  External  state  of  Christianity. — 2.  Literature.— 3.  Wretched 
morals  of  the  clergy. — 4.  Doctrinal  perversions  and  extrava- 
gances.— 5.  Ceremonies.— 6,  Paulicians. 

I.  It  is  agreed  on  all  hands,  that  the  state  of 
Christianity  in  the  tenth  century,  was  most  wretch- 
ed. Ignorance  and  superstition  abounded ;  the 
state  of  morals,  both  amongst  the  clergy  and  laity, 
was  extremely  low  ;  priestcraft  was  the  order  of 
the  day  ;  and  vital  godliness  was  scarcely  to  be 
found.  Yet  the  church  continued  to  extend  her 
borders.  "  The  Nestorians,  living  in  Chaldea,  in- 
troduced Christianity  into  Tartary  proper,  beyond 
mount  Imaus,  where  the  people  lived  entirely  un- 
cultivated and  uncivilized.  Near  the  end  of  the 
Century,  the  same  sect  spread  the  knowledge  of 


148  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

the  gospel  among  that  powerful  horde  of  Tartars 
or  Turks,  which  was  called  Karit,  and  which  bor- 
dered on  Cathay  or  the  northern  part  of  China." 
It  seems  that  a  considerable  part  of  Tartary,  or 
Asiatic  Scythia,  from  this  time,  lived  under  bish- 
ops sent  among  them  by  the  pontiff  of  the  Nesto- 
rians.  Poland  and  Russia  received  Christianity 
in  this  century.  The  Christian  worship  was  es- 
tablished in  Hungary,  near  the  close  ol  this  cen- 
tury, by  Stephen,  one  of  their  chieftains,  whose 
zeal  and  activity  in  the  cause,  procured  him  the 
honour  and  title  of  Saint.  Denmark,  Norway, 
Sweden,  the  Orkney  islands,  Iceland,  and  Green- 
land, received  Christianity  during  this  century ; 
also  several  of  the  provinces  of  Germany,  where 
paganism  had  still  existed.  Toward  the  close  of 
this  century  the  kings  and  princes  of  Europe,  be- 
gan to  think  of  the  project  of  a  holy  war,  to  be 
waged  against  the  Mohammedans,  for  the  purpose 
of  wresting  out  of  their  hands,  the  Holy  Land. 
Christians  were  still  harassed  by  the  Saracens, 
and  the  nations  that  were  still  pagan.  Some  of 
these,  as  Denmark,  until  subdued  by  Otto  the 
Great,  the  Prussians,  Slavonians,  and  Bohemians, 
laboured  with  great  violence  to  root  out  Christian- 
ity ;  and  frequently  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword, 
in  the  most  distressing  manner,  the  neighbouring 
provinces,  in  which  it  had  been  received.  Their 
own  peace  and  safety  was  a  strong  motive  to 
Christian  princes  to  use  all  means  in  their  power 
for  the  conversion  of  those  nations  that  were  still 
pagan. 

II.  The  tenth  century,  with  regard  to  literature, 
may  with  propriety  be  called  the  iron  age.  Leo 
the  Wise,  and  his  son  Constantino,  emperors  of  the 
B*st,  cultivated  learning  themselves,  and  were  so- 


TENTH    CENTURY.  149 

;icitous  to  revive  literature  and  the  arts.  But  there 
were  few  of  the  Greeks  who  copied  their  exam- 
ple. In  Egypt,  though  groaning  under  oppres- 
sion, there  were  some  learned  men,  particularly 
Eutychius,  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Among  the 
Latins,  schools  existed  in  the  monasteries,  and  in 
the  cities  in  which  the  bishops  resided  ;  but  little 
else  was  taught  in  them,  than  such  learning  as  was 
thought  to  be  of  importance  in  matters  of  religion. 
Near  the  end  of  the  century,  the  cause  of  learning 
was  promoted  in  Europe,  by  Gerbert,  a  French- 
man ;  known  among  the  Roman  pontiffs  as  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Sylvester  II.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  genius,  and  pursued  successfully  all  branch- 
es of  learning,  Gerbert  went  into  Spain,  as  was 
common  in  this  age,  to  enjoy  the  instructions  of 
the  Arabian  doctors.  For  the  knowledge  of  medi- 
cine, philosophy,  astronomy,  and  mathematics  that 
existed  from  the  tenth  century  onwards,  Europe 
is  chiefly  indebted  to  the  Saracens,  or  Arabs  of 
Spain. 

III.  The  profligacy  and  wickedness  of  the  cler- 
gy of  this  age  were  truly  wonderful.  "  Nothing 
is  more  incontrovertible,"  says  Mosheim,  "  than 
that  the  clergy,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  Wesi, 
were  composed  principally  of  men  who  were  illit- 
erate, stupid,  ignorant  of  every  thing  pertaining 
to  religion,  libidinous,  superstitious,  and  flagitious. 
Nor  can  any  one  doubt,  that  those  who  wished  to 
be  regarded  as  the  fathers  and  guardians  of  the 
universal  church,  were  the  principal  cause  of  these 
evils.  Nothing  certainly  can  be  conceived  of,  so 
filthy,  or  so  criminal  and  wicked,  that  these  su- 
preme bishops  of  the  church  would  deem  incom- 
patible with  their  characters  ;  nor  was  any  govern- 
ment ever  so  loaded  with  vices  of  every  kind,  as 
13* 


150  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

was  that  which  bore  the  appellation  of  the  most 
holy."  Theophylact,  metropolitan  of  Constanti- 
nople, made  traffic  of  every  thing  sacred,  and  cared 
for  nothing  but  his  hounds  and  horses.  It  is  said 
that  he  kept  tico  thousand  horses,  which  he  fed  on 
nuts  and  fruits,  steeped  in  odorous  wine  !  The 
following  is  the  language  of  Baronius,  a  distin- 
guished Roman  Catholic  writer,  in  regard  to  this 
period.  "  It  is  usual  to  denominate  it  the  iron  age, 
on  account  of  its  barbarism,  and  barrenness  of  all 
good  ;  also  the  leaden  age,  on  account  of  abound- 
ing wickedness,  by  which  it  was  deformed  ;  and 
the  dark  age,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  wri- 
ters. One  can  scarcely  believe,  nay  absolutely 
cannot  credit,  without  ocular  demonstration,  what 
unworthy  conduct,  what  base  and  enormous  deeds, 
what  execrable  and  abominable  transactions,  dis- 
graced the  holy  catholic  see,  which  is  the  pivot  on 
which  the  whole  catholic  church  revolves  ;  when 
temporal  princes,  who,  though  called  Christian, 
were  most  cruel  tyrants,  arrogated  to  themselves 
the  election  of  the  Roman  pontiffs.  Alas,  the 
shame  !  Alas,  the  mischief!  What  monsters,  hor- 
rible to  behold,  were  then  raised  to  the  holy  see, 
which  angels  revere  !  What  evils  did  they  per- 
petrate ;  what  horrible  tragedies  ensued  !  With 
what  pollutions  was  this  see,  though  itself  without 
spot  or  wrinkle,  then  stained  ;  what  corruptions 
infested  it  ;  what  filthiness  defiled  it,  and  hence 
what  mai'AS  of  perpetual  infamy  are  visible  upon 
it  !"  Pope  John  XII.  was  deposed  by  a  council  at 
Rome,  A.  D.  963,  under  charge  of  many  atrocious 
crimes.  Notwithstanding  their  profligacy  and 
crimes,  the  Roman  pontiffs,  by  one  means  and  an- 
other, continued  to  gain  authority  and  influence. 
They  began  in  this  age  to  be  styled  bishops  of  the 


TENTH    CENTURY.  151 

worlds  instead  of  bishops  of  Rome  ;  and  some, 
even  among  the  French  clergy,  conceded  what 
had  never  been  heard  before,  that  bishops  receive 
indeed  all  their  power  from  Go^,  but  only  througk 
St.  Peter.  The  writers  of  this  century  are  few, 
and  of  little  worth. 

IV.  In  this  age,  the  most  important  doctrines 
of  Christianity  were  greatly  perverted  and  obscur- 
ed by  human  inventions  and  additions.  The  es- 
sence of  religion  was  supposed  to  consist  in  the 
worship  of  images,  in  honouring  departed  saints, 
in  searching  for  and  preserving  sacred  relics,  and 
in  heaping  riches  upon  the  priests  and  monks. 
The  fires  of  purgatory,  which  are  to  burn  out  the 
stains  remaining  upon  human  souls  after  death, 
were  an  object  of  intense  dread  to  all ;  nay,  were 
more  feared  than  even  the  punishments  of  hell. 
For  the  latter,  it  was  supposed,  might  be  easily  es- 
caped, if  they  only  died  rich  in  the  prayers  and 
merits  of  the  priests,  or  had  some  saint  to  inter- 
cede for  them  ;  but  not  so  the  former.  This  dread 
of  purgatory,  which  the  priests  found  so  conveni- 
ent to  turn  to  their  own  account,  they  endeavour- 
ed continually,  by  their  discourses,  by  fables,  and 
fictitious  miracles,  to  increase  as  much  as  possible. 
Controversy  in  this  leaden  age,  seems  almost  to 
have  slept  from  the  mere  want  of  knowledge  and 
ability  to  carry  it  on.  The  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  was  not  yet  universally  adopted,  but 
the  Latin  doctors  held  different  opinions  upon  the 
subject.  That  it  was  at  that  time  unknown  to  the 
English,  has  been  shown  by  their  public  homilies. 
"Among  the  opinions  which  dishonoured  and  dis- 
quieted the  Latin  churches,  in  this  century,  none 
produced  more  excitement  than  the  belief  that  the 
day  of  final  consummation  was  at  hand.     This  be- 


152  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

lief  was  derived,  in  the  preceding  century,  from  the 
Apocalypse  of  John,  xx.  2,  3,4,  and  being  advanced 
by  many  in  this  century,  it  spread  over  all  Eu- 
rope, and  excited  immense  terror  and  alarm 
among  the  people.  For  they  supposed  that  John 
had  explicitly  foretold,  that  after  a  thousand  years 
from  the  birth  of  Christ,  Satan  would  be  let  loose, 
Antichrist  would  appear,  and  the  end  of  the  world 
would  come. — Hence,  immense  numbers,  transfer- 
ring their  property  to  the  churches  and  monaste- 
ries, left;  all,  and  proceeded  to  Palestine,  where 
they  supposed  Christ  would  descend  from  heaven 
to  judge  the  world.  Others  by  a  solemn  vow, 
consecrated  themselves  and  all  they  possessed  to 
the  churches,  the  monasteries,  and  the  priests  ; 
serving  them  in  the  character  of  slaves,  and  per- 
forming the  daily  tasks  assigned  them  ;  for  they 
hoped  the  Supreme  Judge  would  be  more  favoura- 
ble to  them,  if  they  made  themselves  servants  to 
his  servants.  Hence  aiso,  when  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  or  moon  took  place,  most  people  betook  them- 
selves to  caverns,  rocks  and  dens.  Very  many 
also  gave  a  large  part  of  their  estates  to  God  and 
the  saints  ;  that  is,  to  the  priests  and  monks.  And 
in  many  places  edifices,  both  sacred  and  secular, 
were  suffered  to  go  to  decay  ;  and  in  some  instan- 
ces were  actually  pulled  down,  from  the  expectation 
that  they  would  no  longer  be  needed.  This  general 
delusion  was  opposed,  indeed,  by  a  few  wiser  indi- 
viduals ;  but  nothing  could  overcome  it,  till  the 
century  had  closed. 

V.  Ceremonies^  already  so  numerous,  were  still 
increased  during  this  century.  "  The  many  new- 
made  citizens  of  heaven,  who  were  daily  enrolled, 
required  the  institution  of  new  festal  days,  new 
forms  of  worship,  and  new  religious  rites."     An 


TENTH    CENTURY.  153 

annual  festival  was  instituted,  near  the  close  of  the 
century,  in  memory  of  all  departed  souls.  The 
worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  already  extravagant, 
was  carried  much  further  than  before.  They  ab- 
stained from  eating  flesh  on  Saturday,  in  honour 
of  the  holy  virgin.  The  daily  Office  of  St.  Mary 
was  introduced  ;  and  traces  of  the  Rosary  and 
Crown  of  St.  Mary,  as  they  are  called,  are  to  be 
found  in  this  century.  For  the  benefit  of  the 
reader,  I  will  add  a  description  of  the  Rosary, 
from  M'  Gavin's  Protestant.  "  It  is  a  large  chap- 
let,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  beads, 
which  make  so  many  Aves.  Every  ten  beads 
divided  by  one,  something  larger,  make  a  Pater, 
The  fifteen  large  beads  are  the  symbols  of  fifteen 
mysteries,  which  are  so  many  lively  images,  as  it 
were,  in  which  are  to  be  discerned  the  intentions 
of  the  Eternal  Father  in  the  interposed  birth  of  his 
Son,  the  casualties  that  befel  him  in  his  infancy, 
and  not  only  in  the  private  and  unknown  part  of 
his  life,  but  also  in  the  glorious,  and  immortal  part 
of  it.  The  common  chaplets  contain  only  fifty 
Ave  Marias,  and  five  Paternosters.  Before  the 
person  begins  to  repeat  his  rosary,  he  must  take 
it  and  cross  himself.  He  must  in  the  next  place, 
repeat  the  Apostle's  creed,  to  put  himself^  in  a 
proper  disposition  for  prayer;  after  which,  he 
must  say  a  Pater  and  three  Aves,  on  account  of 
the  three  relations,  which  the  blessed  Virgin  bears 
to  the  three  persons  in  the  sacred  Trinity." 

VI.  We  read  of  no  new  sects, ^of  any  impor- 
tance, in  this  age.  It  seems  there  were  slill  some 
in  Italy,  who  held  the  Arian  doctrine.  The  Paul- 
icians  were  numerous  in  Syria,  and  in  Thrace. 
"  From  Thrace  they  removed  into  Bulgaria  and 
Slavonia  ;  in  which  countries  they  afterwards  had 


154  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

a  supreme  pontiff  of  the  sect ;  and  they  continued 
their  residence  there  down  to  the  times  of  the 
council  of  Basil,  or  to  the  fifteenth  century. 
From  Bulgaria,  they  migrated  to  Italy ;  and 
thence  spread  into  other  countries  of  Europe,  and 
gave  much  trouble  to  the  Roman  pontiffs." 


CENTURY   XI. 

1.  Efforts  to  extend  Christianity. — 2.  The  Crusades  commen- 
ced — 3.  Dictates  of  Hildebrand. — 4.  Profligacy  of  the  Monks. 
— 5.  Arrogance  of  the  Pope.— 6.  Berengarius  opposes  Tran- 
substantiation. — 7.  Paulicians  migrate  to  the  West. 

I.  "  The  Hungarians,  Danes,  Poles,  Russians,  and 
other  nations,  who,  in  the  preceding  century,  had 
received  a  kind  of  knowledge  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, could  not  universally  be  brought,  in  a  short 
time,  to  prefer  Christianity  to  the  religions  of  their 
fathers.  Therefore  during  the  greater  part  of  this 
century,  their  kings,  with  the  teachers  whom  they 
drew  around  them,  were  occupied  in  gradually 
enlightening  and  converting  these  nations.  In 
Tartary  and  the  adjacent  regions,  the  activity  of 
the  Nestorians  continued  daily  to  gain  over  more 
people  to  the  side  of  Christianity.  And  such  is 
the  mass  of  testimony  at  the  present  day,  that  we 
cannot  doubt,  but  that  bishops  of  the  highest  order, 
or  Metropolitans,  with  many  inferior  bishops  sub- 
ject to  them,  were  established  at  that  period  in 
the  provinces  of  Cashgar,  Nuacheta,  Turkestan, 
Genda,  Tangut,  and  others.     Whence  it  will  be 


ELEVE?JTH    CEXTURY.  1 -J.) 

manifest,  that  there  was  a  vast  multitude  of  Christ- 
ians, in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  in  these 
countries  ;  which  are  now  either  devoted  to  Mo- 
hammedism,  or  worshippers  of  imaginary  gods. 
And  that  all  these  Christians  followed  the  Nesto- 
rian  creed,  and  were  subject  to  the  supreme  pon- 
tiff of  the  Nestorians  residing  in  Chaldea,  is  so 
certain,  as  to  be  beyond  all  controversy." 

Efforts  were  made  in  this  century,  without 
much  success,  to  convert  the  Prussians,  and  other 
nations  in  the  north  of  Europe,  that  were  still 
heathen.  One  Bruno,  who  assumed  the  name  of 
Boniface,  with  eighteen  companions,  went  as  mis- 
sionaries from  Germany  into  Prussia;  but,  after 
some  time,  were  all  put  to  death  by  the  Prussians. 
(A.  D.  1006.) 

The  Saracens,  in  the  ninth  century,  had  seized 
upon  Sicily,  and  neither  the  Greeks  nor  Latins 
had  hitherto  been  able  to  expel  them,  though  they 
had  frequently  attempted  it.  "  But  in  this  century, 
(A.  D.  1059,)  Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman  duke 
of  Apulia,  with  his  brother  Roger,  under  the  au- 
thority of  the  Roman  pontiff  Nicholas  II.  attacked 
them  with  great  valour ;  nor  did  Roger  relinquish 
the  war,  till  he  had  gained  possession  of  the  whole 
island,  and  cleared  it  of  the  Saracens.  After  this 
great  achievement,  in  the  year  1090,  Roger  re- 
s.ored  the  Christian  religion,  now  almost  extin- 
guished there  by  the  Saracens,  to  its  former  dig- 
nity ;  and  established  bishops,  founded  monasteries, 
erected  magnificent  churches,  and  put  the  clergy 
in  possession  of  ample  revenues  and  honours, 
which  they  enjoy  to  the  present  times." 

II.  In  this  century  commenced  the  war  of  the  ^ 
Crusades.     For  some  time  the  plan  of  expelling 
the  Mohammedans  from  Palestine  had  been  in  con- 


156  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

templation  by  the  Roman  pontitTs.  Gregory  VII. 
designed  to  engage  personally  in  such  a  war,  and 
for  this  purpose  raised  more  than  fifty  thousand 
men  ;  but  his  controversy  with  the  emperor  Henry 
IV.  obliged  him  to  abandon  the  design.  The  peo. 
pie  of  Europe  were  first  roused  up  to  this  by 
Peter,  surnamed  the  Hermit.  He  was  a  French- 
man of  Amiens,  who  visited  Palestine  in  1093, 
and  was  greatly  affected  with  the  vexations  and 
oppressions  which  the  Christians  residing  at  the 
holy  places  suffered  from  the  Mohammedans. 
Either  fancying  or  pretending  a  divine  influence, 
he  travelled  over  Europe,  calling  upon  princes 
and  people  to  make  war  upon  the  tyrants  of  Pa- 
lestine, and  rescue  from  their  hands  the  holy  se- 
pulchre. He  carried  with  him  an  epistle  on  the 
subject,  which  he  pretended  came  directly  from 
heaven,  addressed  to  all  Christians.-  The  public 
being  thus  excited.  Urban  II.,  in  the  year  1095, 
assembled  a  numerous  council  at  Placentia,  in 
which  this  holy  war  was  recommended.  It  is  said 
that  there  w^ere  present  in  this  council,  four  thou- 
sand clergymen,  and  thirty  thousand  laymen,  and 
that  its  sessions  were  held  in  the  open  air,  because 
no  church  could  contain  them.  But  the  business 
succeeded  better  at  the  council  of  Clermont,  as- 
sembled soon  after,  and  very  numerously  attended. 
Here  a  vast  multitude,  of  all  ranks  and  ages, 
moved  by  the  tumid  eloquence  of  Urban,  were 
ready  to  engage  at  once  in  a  military  expedition 
to  Palestine,  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing  the  Holy 
Land  from  the  Turks.  This  host  seemed  a  very 
formidable  army  in  point  of  numbers,  but  was  in 
reality  very  weak  and  pusillanimous  :  "  for  it  was 
composed  chiefly  of  monks,  mechanics,  farmers, 
persons   averse   from   their  regular  occupations, 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY.  157 

spendthrifts,  speculators,  prostitutes,  boys,  girls, 
servants,  malefactors,  and  the  lowest  dregs  of  the 
idle  populace,  who  hoped  to  make  their  fortunes." 
They  were  called  Crusaders^  not  only  because  it 
was  their  object  to  rescue  the  cross  of  our  Lord 
from  the  Turks,  but  also  because  they  carried  the 
cross  upon  their  banners,  and  wore  a  white,  red, 
or  green  cross,  made  of  woollen  cloth,  and  sol- 
lemnly  consecrated,  upon  their  right  shoulders. 

In  the  year  1096,  credible  writers  inform  us, 
that  an  army  of  eight  hundred  thousand  persons 
marched,  by  different  routes,  and  under  different 
leaders,  to  Constantinople;  that,  having  received 
instructions  and  aid  from  the  Greek  emperor,  they 
might  pass  over  into  Asia.  The  first  band  of 
eighty  thousand  was  led  on  by  Peter  the  Hermit, 
girded  with  a  rope.  But  this  company,  aft,er  com- 
mitting innumerable  base  deeds,  were  nearly  all 
destroyed  by  the  Hungarians  and  Turks.  Other 
armies  of  these  crusaders  shared  no  better  fate, 
who  roamed  about  under  unskilful  leaders,  plun- 
dering and  laying  waste  the  country  wherever 
they  came.  The  Greek  emperor  was  not  a  little 
alarmed  at  the  approach  of  this  great  army ;  but 
his  fears  were  dispelled  when  it  had  passed  the 
Straits  of  Gallipolis,  and  landed  in  Bithynia.  The 
crusaders  first  laid  siege  to  Nice,  the  capital  of 
Bithynia,  which  was  taken  in  the  year  1097. — 
They  then  proceeded  on  through  Asia  Minor  into 
Syria,  took  Antioch,  and  Edessa ;  and  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  the  city  of  Jerusalem  under 
their  power.  Here  they  established  the  seat  of  a 
new  kingdom,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  who  was 
the  btist  general  among  them,  and  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  war,  was  declared  the  first  king  of 
.Terusalem. 

14 


158  KCCLRSIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

By  these  wars,  Europe  was  deprived  of  a  large 
portion  of  its  population,  "and  immense  sums  of 
money  were  exported  to  foreign  countries  ;  and 
very  many  families  previously  opulent  and  power- 
ful, either  became  extinct,  or  were  reduced  to 
extreme  poverty.  For  the  heads  of  families  either 
mortgaged  or  sold  their  territories,  possessions, 
and  estates,  in  order  to  defray  the  expense  of  their 
expedition  ;  while  others  imposed  such  intolerable 
burdens  upon  their  vassals  and  tenants,  as  obliged 
them  to  abandon  their  houses  and  lands,  and  as- 
sume themselves  the  badge  of  the  cross.  A  vast 
derangement  of  society,  and  a  subversion  of  every 
thing,  took  place  throughout  Europe  :  not  to  men- 
tion the  robberies,  murders,  and  destructions  of 
life  and  property,  every  where  committed  with 
impunity,  by  these  soldiers  of  God  and  Jesus 
Christ,  as  they  were  called ;  and  the  new,  and 
often  very  grievous  privileges  and  prerogatives  to 
which  these  wars  gave  occasion."  Nevertheless, 
these  wars  served  greatly  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  Roman  pontiffs,  and  in  various  ways  to  enrich 
the  churches  and  monasteries.  Superstition,  al- 
ready extravagant,  was  now  greatly  increased 
among  the  Latins.  The  long  list  of  tutelary 
saints,  was  augmented  with  new,  and  often  ficti- 
tious saints,  of  Greek  and  Syrian  origin  ;  and  an 
immense  number  of  ridiculous  relics  were  im- 
ported to  enrich  the  churches  and  chapels.  Each 
one  brought  with  him  from  Asia,  as  the  richest 
treasure,  the  sacred  relics,  which  he  had  purchased 
at  a  high  price,  of  the  fraudulent  Greeks  and 
Syrians,  which  he  committed  to  the  sacred  charge 
of  some  church,  or  to  be  carefully  preserved  by 
the  members  of  his  own  family. 

Learning   in  th  s  age  began  to  be   somewhat 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY.  159 

more  cultivated  in  the  West,  especially  in  France. 
Some  began  to  undertake  the  business  of  instruc- 
tion besides  the  monks.  Dialectics,  or  Logic, 
was  chiefly  cultivated.  But  they  who  had  a  mind 
to  prosecute  a  more  thorough  education,  especially 
in  the  science  of  medicine,  resorted  to  the  schools 
of  the  Saracens,  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

III.  In  this  century  the  corruption  of  the  clergy 
was  very  great.  Violent  factions  were  carried  on 
at  Rome  between  contending  candidates  for  St. 
Peter's  chair.  Benedict  IX,  after  being  twice  ex- 
pelled, by  the  citizens  of  Rome,  for  his  flagitious 
conduct,  from  the  papal  dignity,  seized  upon  it  the 
third  time,  but  was  able  to  hold  it  but  a  little  while. 
To  remedy  these  evils,  Nicholas  II.  changed  the 
mode  of  electing  the  pope,  from  the  people  of 
Rome,  to  the  College  of  Cardinals.  In  the  year 
1073,  Hildebrand  was  raised  to  the  papal  throne 
with  the  title  of  Gregory  VII.  He  was  a  man  of 
gi'eat  parts  and  unbounded  ambition  ;  and  he  ex- 
erted all  his  powers  to  bring  every  thing  in  church 
and  state  under  the  control  of  the  papal  see.  His 
views  and  principles  may  be  seen  in  those  noted 
propositions,  which  from  his  name  are  called  the 
Dictates  of  Hildebrand.  The  following  are  the 
principal  propositions  that  compose  these  Dictates. 
1.  "  That  the  Romish  church  was  founded  by  one 
Lord  alone.  2.  That  the  Roman  pontiff  alone  is 
justly  styled  universal.  3.  That  he  alone  can 
depose  bishops,  and  restore  them.  4.  That  his 
legate  has  precedence  of  all  bishops  in  a  council, 
though  he  be  of  an  inferior  order ;  and  can  issue 
sentence  of  deposition  against  them.  5.  That  the 
pope  can  depose  absent  persons.  6.  That  no  per- 
son, among  other  things,  may  live  under  the  same 
roof,    with   one    excommunicated    by    the    pope. 


160  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

7.  That  the  pope  alone  is  competent,  as  occasion 
nnay  require  to  enact  new  laws,  to  gather  new 
congregations — to  divide  rich  bishoprics,  or  to 
unite  poor  ones.  8.  That  he  alone  can  use  the 
imperial  insignia.  9.  That  princes  should  kiss 
his  feet  only.  10.  That  it  is  lawful  for  him  to 
depose  emperors.  11.  That  no  council,  without 
his  order,  is  to  be  accounted  a  general  council. 
12.  That  his  sentence  is  not  to  be  reviewed  by 
any  one  ;  while  he  alone  can  review  the  decisions 
of  all  others.  13.  That  he  can  be  judged  by  no 
one.  14.  That  no  one  may  presume  to  condemn 
a  person,  who  appeals  to  the  apostolic  see. 
15.  That  the  greater  causes  of  every  church, 
should  be  carried  up  to  that  see.  16.  That  the 
Romish  church  never  erred ;  nor  will  it,  accor- 
ding to  the  Scriptures,  ever  err.  17.  That  with 
his  license,  subjects  may  impeach  [their  sove- 
reigns.] 18  That  no  one  is  to  be  accounted  a 
catholic,  who  does  not  harmonize  with  the  Romish 
church.  19.  That  he  can  absolve  subjects  from 
their  allegiance  to  unrighteous  rulers." — Greater 
power  than  all  this,  one  could  hardly  desire. 

IV.  Most  writers  of  this  age  give  evidence  of 
the  ignorance,  the  frauds,  the  dissoluteness,  the 
quarrels,  and  the  flagrant  crimes  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  monks ;  as  well  as  the  gross  supersti- 
tion, licentiousness,  and  dissolute  lives  of  the  peo- 
ple at  large.  The  great  mass  of  the  people,  and 
even  the  clergy,  secular  as  well  as  regular,  were 
addicted  to  every  species  of  vice.  This  general 
licentiousness,  and  impunity  of  all  sort  of  wicked- 
ness, gave  rise  to  chivalry,  and  the  orders  of 
knights-errant ;  whose  business  it  was  to  protect 
the  weak,  the  poor,  and  especially  females,  against 
the  insults  and  violence  of  the  strong.     This  was 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY.  161 

a  laudable  institution  in  those  wretched  times, 
when  the  energy  of  law  was  wholly  prostrate,  and 
those  filling  the  office  of  judge,  were  incompetent 
to  perform  the  duties  of  their  stations.  Yet  the 
monastic  orders  were  in  the  highest  repute,  and 
several  new  ones  arose  in  this  century  that  ac- 
quired great  wealth  and  influence.  The  first  of 
these  was  that  of  Clug7ii  in  France,  who  were 
called  Cluniacensians :  next  were  the  Cister- 
cians:  then  the  Grandmontains,  whose  rule 
was  extremely  rigorous  :  next  the  Carthusia?is  : 
and  lastly  the  order  of  St.  Anthony^  which  was 
devoted  to  the  receiving  and  curing  diseased  per- 
sons, and  especially  those  affected  with  what  was 
called,  the  holy^  or  St.  Anthony'' s  fire. 

V.  Many  of  the  priests,  as  yet,  had  their  lawful 
wives,  and  concubinage  was  extensively  practised. 
Gregory  undertook  to  reform  both  these  evils,  as 
he  regarded  them ;  which  created  great  tumults 
in  most  countries  of  Europe.  Many  were  willing 
rather  to  relinquish  the  priesthood,  than  to  part 
with  their  wives.  Simony  also,  or  the  sale  of  sa- 
cred offices  to  the  highest  bidder,  as  well  as  lay 
investiture  by  the  ring  and  staff',  or  crosier,  had 
become  very  common.  These  evils  also  Gregory 
undertook  to  correct,  which  produced  violent  and 
long  continued  contests.  It  was  in  these  contests 
that  Henry  IV.  king  of  the  Romans,  was  com- 
pelled to  humble  himself  before  the  haughty  pre- 
late. "  He  obtained,  indeed,  though  with  difficulty, 
from  the  pontiff*,  then  residing  at  the  castle  of  Ca- 
nosa,  with  Matilda,  the  patroness  of  the  church, 
the  pardon  of  his  sins,  after  standing,  for  three 
days  together,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  in  February, 
A.  D.  1077,  barefooted  and  bareheaded,  and 
meanly  clad,  within  the  walls  of  the  castle,  pro- 
14* 


162  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

fessing  himself  a  penitent."  The  writers  of  this 
century,  it  is  not  necessary  to  mention. 

There  were  a  few  divines  about  the  middle  of 
this  century,  who  ventured  to  apply  the  precepts 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  to  the  explanation  of 
scriptural  doctrines,  and  the  confirmation  of  their 
own  opinions.  These  were  chiefly  Berengarius, 
Lanfranc,  and  St.  Anselm.  From  this  proceeded 
what  'was  afterwards  called  scholastic  tlieology, 
which  obtained  so  great  reputation  in  the  follow- 
ing centuries. — The  contest  between  the  Latin  and 
Greek  churches,  which  had  been  for  some  time 
suspended,  was  renewed  in  the  year  1053,  by  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Zeal  for  the  truth 
was  the  pretext,  but  arrogance  and  ambition  were 
the  true  cause.  Both  parties  aimed  at  increasing 
their  power,  and  extending  the  limits  of  their  juris- 
diction. The  legates  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  fail- 
ing to  effect  a  reconciliation,  excommunicated  the 
Greek  patriarch  and  his  adherents  ;  who,  in  turn, 
excommunicated  the  pope's  legates,  and  all  their 
friends  and  supporters.  A  subject  of  violent  con- 
tention between  the  two  parties  was,  that  the  La- 
tins used  unleavened  bread  in  the  eucharist.  It 
was  also  charged  upon  the  Latins,  that  they  did 
not  abstain  from  things  strangled,  and  from  blood ; 
that  their  monks  used  lard,  and  allowed  their  breth- 
ren, when  sick,  to  eat  flesh  ;  that  the  bishops  wore 
rings  on  their  fingers,  as  if  they  were  bridegrooms ; 
that  their  priests  wore  no  beards,  but  shaved  them ; 
and  that  in  baptizing,  they  dipped  the  subject  but 
once  into  the  water. 

VI.  The  controversy  respecting  the  manner  in 
which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  present  in 
the  eucharist,  was  again  revived  about  the  middle 
of  this  century.     Berengarius,  a  man  of  learning, 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY.  163 

and  venerable  for  the  sanctity  of  his  life,  maintain- 
ed the  opinion  of  John  Scotus  Eri;^ena,  respecting 
the  eucharist,  and  taught  that  the  bread  and  wine 
are  not  converted  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
but  are  only  emblematic  of  them.  On  this  ac- 
count he  was  severely  threatened,  and  deprived  of 
the  income  of  his  office.  This  not  proving  suffi- 
cient, he  was  at  lengt?i  summoned  to  Rome,  by 
Nicholas  II.  A.  D.  1058.  In  a  very  full  council, 
Berengarius  was  so  terrified,  that  he  signed  and 
confirmed  with  an  oath,  the  following  formula,  viz  : 
"  That  the  bread  and  wine,  after  consecration,  are 
not  only  a  sacrament,  but  also  the  real  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  and  are  sensibly,  and  not  merely 
sacramentally,  but  really  and  truly  handled  by 
the  hands  of  the  priest,  broken,  and  masticated  by 
the  teeth  of  the  faithful."  But  no  sooner  had  he 
returned  home,  than  he  renounced  this  forced  con- 
cession, and  returned  to  his  former  belief.  He  was 
again  therefore  summoned  to  Rome  by  Gregory 
VII.  in  the  year  1078.  Berengarius  now  profess- 
ed to  believe,  and  swore  that  he  would  in  future 
believe,  "  That  the  bread  of  the  altar,  after  conse- 
tration,  is  the  real  body  of  Christ,  which  was  born 
of  the  Virgin,  suffered  on  the  cross,  and  is  seated 
at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father :  and  that  the  wine 
of  the  altar,  after  consecration,  is  the  real  blood 
which  flowed  from  Christ's  side."  This  although 
it  satisfied  Gregory,  did  not  satisfy  others.  In  the 
following  year,  therefore,  he  was  compelled  to  sign 
a  formula  drawn  up  in  much  stronger  terms.  But 
this  he  again  discarded  and  refuted  by  a  book,  as 
soon  as  he  got  home.  His  enemies,  therefore,  re- 
newed their  attack  upon  him  ;  but  instead  of  an- 
swering tham,  he  retired  into  solitude,  where  he 
lived  a  life  of  religious  devotion,  until  the  year 


164  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORl . 

1088,  when  he  died,  leaving  a  high  reputation  for 
sanctity,  and  many  ibl lowers. 

The  pope  found  much  difficulty  in  establishing 
the  use  of  the  Romish  litiirgij  in  several  countries, 
particularly  in  Spain,  where  they  had  long  used 
the  Gothic.  This  contest  in  Castile,  was  submitted 
to  a  deicision  by  single  combat.  Accordingly,  two 
champions  were  selected,  one  to  fight  for  the  Ro- 
man, the  other  for  the  Gothic  liturgy.  The  cham- 
pion for  the  Gothic  conquered.  This  seemed  to  be 
a  fair  decision  in  favour  of  the  Gothic  ;  yet  the 
power  and  authority  of  the  pontiff,  backed  by  the 
queen,  prevailed.  In  this  age,  they  were  much 
employed  in  repairing  and  ornamenting  their 
churches,  which,  in  the  preceding  century,  had 
been  suffered  to  go  very  much  to  ruins,  under 
the  apprehension  that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at 
hand. 

VII.  The  heretics  of  this  century,  so  called, 
were  the  Manichcsans,  or  Paulicians,  who  inhab- 
ited Bulgaria,  and  Thrace  ;  and  were  in  almost 
continued  conflict  with  the  Greeks.  "  From  Bul- 
garia and  Thrace,  some  of  this  sect,  either  from 
zeal  to  extend  their  religion,  or  from  weariness  of 
Grecian  persecutions,  removed  first  info  Italy,  and 
then  into  other  countries  of  Europe  :  and  there 
they  gradually  collected  numerous  congregations, 
with  which  the  Roman  pontiffs  afler wards  waged 
bloody  wars.  At  what  time  the  migration  of  the 
Paulicians  into  western  Europe  commenced,  it  is 
difficult  to  ascertain.  But  this  is  well  attested,  that 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  this  century,  they  were 
numerous  in  Lombardy,  Insubria,  and  especially 
Milan  :  nor  is  it  less  certain,  that  persons  of  this 
sect  strolled  about  in  France,  Germany,  and  other 
countries  ;  and  by  their  great  appearance  of  sane* 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY.  165 

tity,  captivated  no  small  number  of  the  common 
people."  They  were  called  by  different  names,  in 
different  places  ;  as  Paterini,  Cathari,  Albigenses, 
Publicani,  and  Boni  Homines.  It  is  difficult  to 
know  what  these  people  held,  as  their  history  is 
involved  in  much  obscurity.  Their  enemies, 
from  whom  we  chiefly  derive  our  knowledge  of 
them,  accuse  them  of  very  great  errors  ;  but  gen- 
erally bear  testimony  to  their  blameless  life.  We 
have  before  spoken  of  the  Paulicia7is,  as  pious 
and  excellent  witnesses  of  the  truth.  It  is  probable 
that  most  of  the  people  spoken  of  under  the  above 
mentioned  names,  were  of  a  similar  character,  and 
by  no  means  deserved  the  name  of  heretics.  It  is 
also  probable  that  they  differed  very  much  in  the 
different  countries  in  which  they  were  found ;  and 
that  sects  very  different  from  one  another,  were 
often  confounded  in  the  minds  of  their  indiscrimi- 
nating  adversaries.  There  is  no  doubt  that  many 
of  those  who  were  denominated  heretics  in  this 
age,  and  persecuted  as  such,  because  they  refused 
to  conform  to  the  established  church,  were  the 
humble  followers  of  Christ,  and  constituted  his  wit- 
nesses for  the  truth,  in  a  dark  age,  and  perverse 
generation. 

A  congregation  of  this  kind,  is  said  to  have  been 
first  discovered  at  Orleans,  in  France,  A.  D.  1017, 
in  the  reign  of  king  Robert.  They  were  charged 
with  grievous  errors  and  shameful  practices,  for 
which  their  leaders,  to  the  number  of  thirteen, 
were  burnt  to  death.  Still  they  are  extolled  for 
their  piety,  even  by  their  enemies.  They  were 
probably  a  kind  of  Tiiy sties,  who  rejected  the  ex- 
ternal worship  of  God,  and  ascribed  no  efficacy  to 
religious  rites,  somewhat  similar  to  the  Quakers 
of  after  times.     Persons  of  this  description  pro- 


166  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ceeded  from  Italy  in  the  following  centuries,  and 
spread  over  nearly  all  Europe,  and  were  called  in 
Germany,  Brethren  qftke  Free  Spirit,  and  in  some 
other  countries,  Begkards. 


CENTURY  XII. 

1.  Efforts  still  made  to  convert  the  barbarous  tribes  of  the 
West. — 2.  Prester  John. — 3  Crusades — 4,  Learning.— 5. 
Arrogancy  of  the  Popes,  and  profligacy  of  all  Orders. — 6.  Su- 
perstition.—  7.  Indulgences.  — 8.  The  Petrobrussians. — 9. 
Henricians. — 10.  Waldenses. 

I.  Efforts  were  still  kept  up  in  this  century  to 
induce  the  barbarous  tribes  inhabiting  the  north  of 
Europe,  the  Pomeranians,  Finns,  and  Livonians, 
to  embrace  Christianity.  Fierce  wars  were  fre- 
quently waged,  and  carried  on  for  this  purpose. 
In  these,  Waldernar  I.  king  of  Denmark,  Eric  IX. 
of  Sweden,  called  after  his  death  St.  Eric,  prince 
Henry  the  Lion,  and  others,  distinguished  them- 
selves. The  precepts  enjoined  by  these  propaga- 
tors of  Christianity,  will  show  what  were  regard- 
ed as  the  essentials  of  religion  at  that  day,  as  well 
as  some  of  the  practices  of  these  barbarians,  viz : 
— They  must  observe  Sundays,  and  the  feast  days  ; 
they  must  fast;  must  bring  their  children  to  be 
baptized,  with  certain  formalities  at  Whitsuntide  ; 
must  not  murder  their  daughters  as  formerly  ;  must 
refrain  from  polygamy  ;  must  not  marry  their 
god-mothers  ;  and  in  general  must  refrain  from 
marrying  their  kindred  within  the  sixth  and  sev- 
enth degrees ;  they  must  not  bury  the  bodies  of 


TWELFTH    CENTURY.  167 

Christians  among  those  of  pagans  ;  must  build  no 
idol  temples ;  consult  no  soothsayer  ;  eat  nothing 
that  is  unclean  ;  do  penance  often,  &c. 

II.  In  this  century  lived  the  famous  Prester 
John,  who,  from  being  a  presbyter,  became  a  very 
powerful  king  over  the  eastern  regions  of  Asia. 
"  The  exalted  opinion  of  the  power  and  riches  of 
this  Prester  John^  entertained  by  the  Greeks  and 
Latins,  arose  from  this,  that  being  elated  with  his 
prosperity,  and  the  success  of  his  wars  with  the 
neighbouring  nations,  he  sent  ambassadors  and  let- 
ters to  the  Roman  emperor  Frederick  I.,  to  the 
Greek  emperor  Manuel,  and  to  other  sovereigns, 
in  which  he  extravagantly  proclaimed  his  own 
majesty  and  wealth  and  power,  exalting  himself 
above  all  the  kings  of  the  earth  ;  and  this  boast- 
ing of  the  vain-glorious  man,  the  Nestorians  la- 
boured with  all  their  power  to  confirm.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  or  brother,  whose  proper 
name  was  David,  but  who  was  also  generally  call- 
ed Prester  John.  This  prince  was  vanquished  and 
slain,  near  the  close  of  this  century,  by  that  mighty 
Tartar  emperor,  Gengis-Khan." 

III.  The  new  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  establish- 
ed by  the  French  in  the  last  century,  seemed  to 
flourish  for  a  time,  but  as  soon  as  the  Mohammed-  / 
ans  recovered  from  their  sudden  terror  and  con-  J 
sternation,  they  began  to  collect  their  forces,  and 
harass  the  Christians  with  continual  wars.  They 
therefore  implored  the  succour  of  the  Christian 
kings  of  Europe.  The  Roman  pontiff  favoured 
their  cause,  and  left  no  means  untried,  to  induce 

the  emperor  and  other  sovereigns  of  Europe  to  un- 
dertake another  expedition  to  Palestine.  This  new 
crusade  was  long  a  subject  of  debate,  but  was  at 
length  brought  to  an  issue  by  St.  Bernard,  a  man 


168  ECCLKSIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  immense  influence,  who  in  the  year  1146, 
'preached  the  cross,  as  it  was  called,  in  France  and 
Germany,  but  especially  at  a  public  assembly  at 
Vezelay,  and  promised  in  the  name  of  God,  great 
victories,  and  a  most  prosperous  issue  to  the  enter- 
prise. Lewis  VII.  king  of  France,  his  queen,  and 
a  vast  number  of  nobles  who  were  present,  devot- 
ed themselves  to  the  sacred  war.  Conrad  III.  em- 
peror  of  the  Germans,  at  first  resisted  the  admo- 
nitions of  St.  Bernard,  but  after  some  delay  yield- 
ed, and  followed  the  example  of  the  French  king. 
They  both  therefore  the  following  year,  (1147,) 
with  numerous  armies,  set  out  by  different  routes 
for  the  Holy  Land.  But  the  greater  part  of  both 
armies  perished  miserably  on  the  road,  either  by  fa- 
mine, or  by  shipwreck,  or  by  the  sword  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans. When  the  remains  of  these  armies 
had  arrived  in  Palestine,  they  could  effect  nothing, 
owing  to  a  disagreement  between  the  two  leaders. 
The  few  soldiers  that  remained,  therefore,  being 
not  more  than  one-tenth  part,  they  led  back  again 
to  Europe,  A.  D.  1149.  The  only  effect  of  this 
second  crusade  was,  to  drain  Europe  of  a  great 
portion  of  its  wealth,  and  of  a  vast  number  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  number  of  men  lost  in  this  fruit- 
less expedition,  was  about  180,000. 

The  third  crusade  was  commenced  by  the  em- 
peror Frederic  I.,  surnamed  Barbarossa,  who 
passed  with  a  large  army  into  Asia,  in  the  year 
1189.  He  lost  his  life  the  following  year  while 
bathing,  and  a  large  part  of  his  army  returned  to 
Europe.  Of  those  that  remained,  very  many  were 
cut  off*  by  the  plague,  and  the  rest  dispersed,  sc 
that  nothing  was  accomplished.  The  emperor 
Frederic  was  followed  in  the  year  1190,  by  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  France,  and  Richard,  surnamed 


TWELFTH    CENTURY.  169 

the  Lion-hearted,  king  of  England.  Both  these 
reached  Palestine  by  sea,  and  in  their  first  battle 
with  the  enemy,  were  not  unsuccessful.  But  tiiH 
next  year,  the  king  of  France  returned.  The  king 
of  England,  after  prosecuting  the  war  with  vigour 
for  some  time,  and  gaining  several  battles,  being 
deserted  by  the  French  and  Italians,  concluded  a 
truce  with  Saladin  for  three  years,  three  months, 
and  three  days  ;  and  soon  after  left  Palestine  with 
his  troops.  And  thus  ended  the  third  crusade, 
leaving  Jerusalem  in  the  hands  of  the  infidels  ;  for 
Saladin  had  reduced  it  under  his  power  in  the 
year  1187. 

During  these  wars  of  the  crusades,  there  arose 
three  celebrated  equestrian  or  military  orders  ; 
the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  the  Knights 
Templars,  and  the  Teutonic  Knights  of  St.  Mary  ; 
whose  business  it  was  to  clear  the  roads  of  robbers, 
to  harass  the  Mohammedans  with  perpetual  war- 
fare, to  afford  assistance  to  the  poor  and  sick  among 
the  pilgrims  to  the  holy  places,  and  to  perform  any 
services  which  the  public  exigences  seemed  to 
require. 

Near  the  latter  end  of  this  century,  a  great 
change  was  effected  in  the  condition  of  Christian- 
ity in  Asia  by  the  conquests  of  the  great  Gengis- 
Khan,  commander  of  the  Tartars.  This  descend- 
ant of  the  Moguls,  who,  as  a  hero,  and  victorious 
chieftain,  has  had  ?ew  equals  in  any  age,  having 
conquered  the  north-east  parts  of  Asia,  invaded 
Persia,  India,  and  Arabia,  overturned  the  Sara- 
cenic empire,  and  established  that  of  the  Tartars. 
From  this  time,  the  reputation  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion was  greatly  diminished,  in  the  countries  that 
had  been  subject  to  Prester  John,  and  his  succes- 
sor David  :  nor  did  it  cease  to  decline,  until  it  was 
15 


170  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORV. 

wholly  prostrated,  either  by  Mohammedan  errors 
or  the  fables  of  paganism. 

IV.  Leaniing  in  this  century,  both  in  the  East 
and  West,  began  considerably  to  revive.  To  the 
seven  liberal  arts  were  added  the  study  of  langua- 
ges, scholastic  theology,  jurisprudence,  and  physic. 
Universities  began  to  be  established,  to  which  the 
youth  flocked  in  great  numbers.  That  of  Paris 
took  the  lead.  The  discovery  of  the  celebrated 
copy  of  the  Pandects  of  Justinian,  in  the  year 
1137,  gave  great  impulse  to  the  study  of  the  Ro- 
man law.  Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  also  pub- 
lished an  epitome  of  canon  law,  which  began  now 
to  be  studied  in  the  schools. 

The  writers  of  this  century  need  not  be  named,, 
although  some  of  them  obtained  celebrity  in  their 
day.  In  this  age  lived  the  famous  Abelard  and 
Eloisa ;  also  Peter  Lombard,  commonly  called 
Master  of  the  sentences,  because  he  collected  and 
arranged  scientifically  the  theological  opinions  and 
decisions  of  the  Latin  fathers. 

V.  The  popes  of  this  century,  like  their  prede- 
cessors, haughty,  ambitious,  and  aspiring,  aimed 
at  nothing  less  than  universal  power.  The  con- 
troversy concerning  investitures  was  kept  up,  and 
produced  great  commotions  from  time  to  time. — 
Several  schisms  existed  for  years  together,  when 
rival  popes,  supported  by  adverse  factions,  con- 
tended for  the  supreme  authority  ;  and  of  course, 
that  party  proved  to  be  in  the  right,  which  hap- 
pened to  be  strongest,  and  w^as  in  the  end  suc- 
cessful. It  was  might  that  made  right,  in  those 
days,  and  in  these  violent  and  often  bloody  con- 
tests ;  in  which  was  settled  the  lineal  descent, 
through  which,  it  is  pretended,  has  come  down  to 
the  present  day,  the  only  true  and  verifiable  epis- 


TWELFTH    CENTURY.  171 

copal  authority.  Pope  Hadrian  exhibited  not  a 
little  prelaticai  pride,  when  he  required  Frederic 
I.  emperor  of  Germany,  to  perform  the  office  of 
groom,  and  hold  his  stirrup,  when  he  mounted  his 
horse  to  ride,  (A.  D.  1155.)  It  is  even  said  that 
pope  Alexander,  on  another  occasion,  when  this 
same  emperor  was  prostrate  as  a  suppliant  before 
him,  placed  his  foot  upon  his  neck,  and  repeated 
the  words  of  David,  Psal.  xci,  13,  "  Tkou  shall 
tread  upon  the  lion  and  the  adder;''''  but  the  truth 
of  this  account  is  doubted.  In  this  century  the 
famous  Thomas  Becket,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
produced  no  little  disturbance  in  England,  in  his 
attempts  to  maintain  the  authority  of  the  pope 
against  the  king ;  for  which  he  was  assassinated 
by  four  knights  of  the  king's  household,  (A.  D. 
1170,)  and  was  afterwards  sainted,  and  enrolled 
among  martyrs  of  the  highest  order ;  and  his 
tomb  became  famous  for  the  miracles  said  to  be  per- 
formed at  it.  The  vices  of  the  monks  and  clergy, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  orders,  were  enor- 
mous. They  renounced  all  immediate  subordina- 
tion to  the  civil  magistrate,  and  openly  pretended 
to  an  exemption  in  criminal  accusations,  from  a 
trial  before  courts  of  justice.  Spiritual  penalties 
alone  could  be  inflicted  on  their  ofl^ences.  When, 
therefore,  the  clergy  were  greatly  multiplied  in 
England,  and  many  of  them  were  ignorant  and 
low  characters  ;  crimes  of  the  deepest  dye,  mur- 
ders,  adulteries,  robberies,  rapes,  were  daily  com- 
mitted with  impunity  by  them.  It  was  ascertain- 
ed, upon  inquiry,  that  not  less  than  one  hundred 
murders  had  been  committed,  in  less  than  ten 
years,  by  men  of  that  profession,  who  had  never 
been  called  to  an  account  for  their  offences.  The 
following  statement  will  show  the  style  of  living 


172  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTOKY. 

among  the  monks  in  England.  "  We  are  told," 
says  Hume,  "  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  that  the 
monks  and  prior  of  St.  Swithin  threw  themselves, 
one  day,  prostrate  on  the  ground  and  in  the  mire, 
before  Henry  II.  complaining  with  many  tears, 
and  much  doleful  lamentation,  that  the  bishop  of 
Winchester,  who  was  also  their  abbot,  had  cutoff 
three  dishes  from  their  table.  How  many  has  he 
left  you  1  so  id  the  king.  Ten  o?ily,  replied  the  dis- 
consolate monks.  I  myself,  exclaimed  the  king, 
never  have  more  than  three  ;  and  I  enjoin  your 
bishop  to  reduce  you  to  the  same  number." 

VI.  The  ceremonies  of  the  church  continued  to 
be  increased.  The  veneration  of  the  Virgin  Ma- 
ry, already  very  great,  was  much  increased  upon 
the  idea  of  her  immaculate  conception.  The  holy 
supper  was  still  administered  in  both  kinds. — 
Transubstantiation  was  generally  received,  and 
the  practice  of  elevating  the  host  for  the  adora- 
tion of  the  people  was  introduced.  Clement  111. 
ordained  that  none  but  unleavened  bread  should 
be  used  ;  and  that  the  wine  should  be  mixed  with 
water. 

The  scholastic  clivmity  took  the  lead  in  this  age, 
in  which  Abelard  and  Peter  Lombard  were  most 
distinguished.  Among  the  questions  discussed 
were  the  following;  in' what  sense  it  might  be 
said — tJie  incarnate  God  ivas  at  the  same  time  the 
offerer  and  the  sacrifice; — respecting  the  import  of 
Christ's  words,  My  Father  is  greater  than  I ;  re- 
specting the  will  and  omnipotence  of  God  ;  wheth- 
er God  wills^  and  himself  effects^  whatever  takes 
place,  or  whether  he  only  permits  certain  things 
to  take  place,  which  he  would  not  have  to  be ;  re- 
specting the  imjnaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary. 


TWELFTH    CENTURY.  173 

Religion  in  this  age  had  degenerated  almost 
wholly  into  superstition.  More  reliance  was  pla- 
ced  upon  sacred  relics,  penances,  pilgrimages  to 
holy  places,  fighting  in  the  holy  wars,  contributing 
to  the  building  of  churches,  either  money  or  la- 
bour, than  upon  any  thing  else.  But  the  bishops 
foun.i  it  convenient,  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
money,  to  permit  persons  to  buy  off  the  prescri- 
bed penance ;  so  that  instead  of  fasting  so  long,  and 
repeating  so  many  Paternosters,  and  Ave  Marias, 
he  should  pay  so  much  money.  These  were 
called  indulgences^  and  were  most  convenient  both 
to  the  priests,  and  to  the  people. 

VII.  "  The  Roman  pontiffs,  perceiving  what  ad- 
vantages the  inferior  bishops  derived  from  their 
indulgences,  concluded  that  the  power  of  the  bish- 
ops to  remit  ecclesiastical  penalties,  ought  to  be 
circumscribed,  and  the  prerogative  be  almost 
wholly  transferred  to  the  Roman  See.  According- 
ly they  began,  as  the  necessity  of  the  church,  or 
their  own  interests  required,  to  publish,  not  merely 
the  common  and  ordinary,  but  likewise  the  entire 
and  absolute,  or  the  plenanj,  remission  of  all  finite 
or  temporal  penalties,  and  they  cancelled,  not  only 
the  punishments  which  the  canons  and  human  tri- 
bunals inflict,  but  also  those  to  be  endured  after 
death,  which  the  bishops  had  never  attempted  to 
set  aside.  They  first  resorted  to  this  power,  for 
promoting  the  crusades,  and  were  sparing  in  the 
use  of  it,  but  afterwards  they  exerted  it  for  objects 
of  far  less  importance,  and  of  various  kinds,  and 
very  often,  merely  for  their  own  private  emolu- 
ment. Upon  the  introduction  of  this  new  system, 
the  ancient  system  of  canonical  and  ecclesiastical 
penances,  was  wholly  subverted  ;  and  the  books 
of  canons  and  the  penitenlials  being  laid  aside, 
15* 


174  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

transgressors  were  no  longer  under  restraints.  To 
support  this'proceeding  of  the  pontiffs,  an  unheard 
oi'  doctrine  was  got  up  in  this  century,  which  St. 
Thomas  in  the  next  century  improved  and  per- 
fected ;  namely,  that  there  is  an  immense  treasu- 
ry of  good  works  which  holy  merf  have  perform- 
ed, over  and  above  what  duty  required  ;  and  that 
the  Roman  pontilT  is  the  keeper  and  distributor  oi 
this  treasure  ;  so  that  he  is  able,  out  of  this  inex- 
haustible fund,  to  give  and  transfer  to  every  one 
such  an  amount  of  good  works  as  his  necessities 
require,  or  as  will  suffice  to  avert  the  punishment 
of  his  sins.  This  miserable  and  pernicious  fic- 
tion, it  is  to  be  lamented,  is  still  retained  and  de- 
fended." 

VIII.  The  presbyter  Feter  De  Bruys,  about  the 
year  1110,  attempted  a  restoration  of  true  reli- 
gion, in  Languedoc  and  Provence,  provinces  of 
France;  and  having  drawn  many  followers  to  him, 
after  journeying  and  labouring  for  twenty  years, 
was  burnt  by  the  enraged  populace,  at  St.  Giles, 
A.  D.  1130.  ,  The  whole  system  of  doctrines,  in- 
culcated by  this  Peter  upon  his  followers,  who  from 
him  were  called  Petrobrussians,  is  not  known; 
yet  there  are  five  of  his  opinions  that  have  reach- 
ed us  :  1.  That  persons  ought  not  to  be  baptized 
till  they  come  to  the  use  of  reason.  2.  That  it  is 
not  proper  to  build  churches,  and  that  such  as  are 
built  should  be  pulled  down.  3.  That  the  holy 
crosses  should  be  destroyed.  4.  That  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  are  not  distributed  in  the  sa-. 
cred  supper,  but  only  the  signs  of  them.  5.  That 
the  oblations,  prayers,  and  good  works  of  the  liv- 
ing  do  not  profit  the  dead. 

IX.  The  Henricians   were    the    followers   of 
Henry,  who  has  been  represented  as  a  disciple  of 


TWELFTH    CENTURY.  175 

Peter  de  Bruys,  but  it  is  thought  without  good  au- 
thority. He  travelled  from  Switzerland  through 
the  south  of  France,  and  in  1147  came  to  Tou- 
louse,  every  where  boldly  declaiming  against  the 
vices  of  the  clergy,  and  the  defects  of  the  prevail- 
ing religion,  with  the  applause  of  the  multitude. 
He  was  brought  before  the  Roman  pontiff  at 
Rheims,  and  by  him  committed  to  prison,  A.  D. 
1148,  where  he  soon  after  died.  We  only  know 
of  his  doctrines,  "  that  he  disapproved  of  infant 
baptism,  inveighed  severely  against  the  corrupt 
morals  of  the  clergy,  despised  the  festal  days  and 
religious  ceremonies,  and  held  clandestine  as- 
semblies." 

X.  But  of  all  the  sects  of  this  century,  none 
were  more  famous  than  the  Walde7tses„  who  in- 
habited the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  among  the  Alps. 
They  took  their  name  from  Peter  Waldus  or  Wal- 
do, a  rich  merchant  of  Lyons,  who  having  obtain- 
ed a  translation  of  certain  books  of  the  Scriptures, 
especially  the  four  Gospels,  was  convinced  that  the 
religion  commonly  taught,  differed  altogether  from 
that  taught  by  Christ  and  his  apostles.  Earnest- 
ly desiring  salvation  therefore,  he  distributed  his 
property  among  the  poor,  and,  in  the  year  1180, 
with  some  other  pious  men  whom  he  had  associ- 
ated with  him,  he  took  upon  himself  the  office  of 
preacher.  The  archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  other 
prelates,  opposed  this  proceeding.  But  the  simple 
holy  religion  which  these  men  professed,  with  the 
purity  and  innocence  of  their  lives,  had  great  in- 
fluence with  the  multitude,  who  readily  fell  in  with 
them.  They  formed  societies  first  in  France,  and 
then  in  Lombardy,  and  these  multiplied  and 
spread,  with  amazing  rapidity,  through  all  the 
countries  of  Europe  ,*  nor  could  they  be  extermi- 


176  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

nated  by  any  punishments,  whether  by  death,  or 
other  forms  of  persecution. 

Some  have  maintained,  however,  and  probably 
with  truth,  that  the  Waldenses  were  of  much 
higher  date  than  the  time  of  Peter  Waldo,  and 
that  they  took  their  name  from  the  valleys  in  which 
they  dwelt,  and  some  have  even  deduced  their 
origin  from  a  very  early  period  of  the  Christian 
church.  That  a  people  did  inhabit  those  valleys 
long  before  this  time,  who  rejected  the  corruptions 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  is  generally  admitted  to 
be  true ;  and  hence  the  doctrines  of  Peter  Waldo 
and  his  associates  obtained  so  ready  a  reception, 
and  so  strong  a  hold  among  them.  And  although 
their  history  is  involved  in  much  obscurity,  there 
is  every  probability  that  the  Waldenses  were  the 
successors  of  those  pious  and  faithful  witnesses 
for  Christ.  The  doctrines  and  order  which  they 
maintained,  have  been  much  disputed.  Yet  it  is 
believed  that  no  candid  reader  of  the  creeds,  con- 
fessions, and  other  public  documents  which  they 
have  left,  can  hesitate  to  conclude  that  their  lead- 
ing opinions  were  very  nearly  the  -same  with  those 
which  were  afterwards  entertained  by  Luther, 
Calvin,  and  the  other  Reformers,  so  that  they  fell 
m  very  readily  with  the  church  of  Geneva,  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  That  they  taught, substantially, 
the  system  of  free  grace  which  is  now  received 
in  orthodox  Protestant  churches,  and  that  they 
were  also  Pedobaptists  and  Presbyterians,  is  toe 
evident  to  admit  of  a  reasonable  doubt.* 

*  See  Appendix. 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  177 


CENTURY  XIII. 

'  Mogul  empire. — 2.  Crusaders. — 3.  Learning. — 4.  Tyranny 
of  the  popes — 5.  Monks. — 6.  Dominicans. — 7.  Franciscans. 
— 8.  Theology, — 9.  Flagellants. — 10.  Rites  and  ceremonies. 
— 11.  Inquisition. — 12.  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit. 

I.  In  this  century  flourished  the  great  Mogul  Em- 
pire of  the  Tartar  race,  under  Gengis-Khan,  and 
his  successors,  extending  from  the  Chinese  Sea, 
to  the  Euphrates  and  Euxine.  The  first  of  these 
Mogul  emperors  was  friendly  to  Christianity  ;  and 
the  Roman  pontiffs  sent  ambassadors,  and  also  mis- 
sionaries to  him,  who  were  not  altogether  unsuc- 
cessful. They  instructed  many,  both  of  the  Tar- 
tars and  of  the  Nestorians  in  the  principles  of  the 
Romish  religion,  and  gathered  Christian  churches 
not  only  in  Tartary,  but  also  in  China.  And  had 
it  not  been  for  the  divisions  and  contentions  be- 
tween Christians  themselves,  especially  between 
the  Roman  Catholics  and  Nestorians,  Christianity 
might  probably  have  gained  the  ascendency 
throughout  the  East.  But  in  the  end,  the  Moham- 
medan religion  prevailed,  as  probably  being  more 
congenial  with  the  warlike  character  and  spirit  of 
the  Tartar  race. 

II.  The  crusades  were  kept  up  in  this  century, 
and  several  expeditions  passed  over  to  Syria  and 
Egypt,  but  with  very  little  success.  The  popes 
found  it  a  gainful  business,  as  tending  greatly  to 
increase  both  their  wealth  and  power ;  they,  there- 


178  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

fore,  used  all  their  influence  to  keep  up  these  wars. 
But  after  so  many  disasters  and  defeats,  the  sove- 
reigns of  Europe  would  no  longer  venture  upon 
an  enterprise  of  so  much  expense  and  hazard. 
Hence  the  kingdom  of  the  Latins  in  the  East 
gradually  wasted  away,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of 
the  Roman  pontiffs  to  preserve  it ;  and  on  the 
capture  of  Ptolemais,  A.  D.  1291,  it  became 
wholly  extinct.  Thus  ended  this  vain  effort  where 
it  began,  afler  it  had  cost  Europe  an  immense 
amount  of  blood  and  treasure.  It  is  estimated 
that  not  less  than  two  millions  of  European  lives 
were  lost  in  these  holy  wars  ! 

The  Prussians,  and  other  northern  barbarians, 
were  influenced  in  this  century  to  come  over  to 
the  Christian  faith,  by  a  fifty  years'  war,  waged 
upon  them  for  that  purpose,  by  the  Teuto?iic 
Knights  of  St.  Mary.  Continued  wars  were 
waged  in  Spain  by  the  Christian  kings  of  Castile, 
Leon,  Navarre,  and  Arragon,  against  the  Saracen 
princes,  who  were  still  in  possession  of  Valencia, 
Andalusia,  Granada,  and  Murcia.  And  these 
latter  were  gradually  weakened,  and  their  territory 
diminished. 

IIL  Learning  in  this  century  laboured  under 
great  disadvantages  among  the  Greeks,  but  revived 
and  flourished  among  the  Latins.  The  kings  and 
princes  of  Europe,  having  experienced  the  advan- 
tages a  nation  may  derive  from  learning  and  the 
useful  arts,  invited  learned  men  into  their  territo- 
ries, encouraged  a  thirst  for  knowledge,  and  re- 
warded it  with  honours  and  emoluments;  The 
emperor  Frederic  II.  and  Alphonsus  X.  king  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  distinguished  themselves  as  the 
patrons  of  learning.  Public  schools  were  founded 
at    Padua,  Modena,  Naples    Capua.  Salamanca, 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  179 

Lyons,  Cologne,  and  other  places.  But  the  school 
at  Paris  excelled  them  all,  and  was  the  first  that 
assumed  the  form  of  a  university.  The  college 
of  theology  was  principally  founded  and  endowed 
by  Robert  de  Sorbonne,  (A.  D.  1250,)  a  wealthy 
and  pious  man,  and  a  lavourite  of  Lewis  IX. ; 
from  whom  it  derived  the  name  of  Sorbonne, 
which  it  has  retained  to  the  present  day.  In  this 
age  the  works  of  Aristotle  obtained  a  complete 
ascendency  in  the  schools.  The  tirst  who  pub- 
lished expositions  of  Aristotle,  were  Alexander 
Hales,  an  Englishman,  called  the  Irrefragable 
Doctor  ;  Albert  the  Great,  a  German,  and  a  man 
of  superior  genius  ;  and  after  these  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, who  was  the  great  luminary  of  the  schools, 
and  was  called  the  Angelic  Doctor.  In  this  age 
lived  Roger  Bacon,  an  Englishman,  and  a  Francis- 
can monk.  He  was  a  very  extraordinary  man, 
skilled  far  beyond  the  standard  of  his  age,  in 
philosophy,  mathematics,  chemistry,  the  mechanic 
arts,  and  various  languages.  He  was  called  the 
Admirable  Doctor.  His  discoveries  and  exhibi- 
tions in  chemistry  and  the  arts  were  so  wonder- 
ful, and  so  far  above  the  comprehension  of  the  age, 
that  he  was  accused  of  magic,  and  imprisoned  for 
ten  years  as  a  heretic. 

IV.  The  Roman  pontiffs  of  this  century  were 
most  corrupt,  tyrannical,  and  oppressive ;  they 
scrupled  at  no  means  of  extending  their  power  and 
increasing  their  wealth  ;  claimed  universal  author- 
ity and  control,  both  in  church  and  state ;  and 
sometimes  raised  up,  and  put  down  kings  at  plea- 
sure. Innocent  III.  in  the  year  1208,  excommu- 
nicated John,  surnamed  Lack-land,  king  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland;  afterwards,  in  1211  absolved 
his  subjects    from  their  oath  of  allegiance;  and 


180  KCCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

finally,  in  the  year  1212  divested  him  of  hiS 
authority,  and  gave  the  kingdoms  of  England  and 
Ireland  to  Philip  Augustus,  the  king  of  France. 
Alarmed  at  these  decrees,  and  dreading  a  war, 
John  made  his  kingdoms  tributary  to  the  pope,  in 
the  year  1212.  His  submission  was  in  the  fol- 
lowing words — "  I  John,  by  the  grace  of  God, 
king  of  England  and  lord  of  Ireland,  for  the  ex- 
piation of  my  sins,  and  out  of  my  own  free  will, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  my  barons,  do  give 
unto  the  church  of  Rome,  and  to  pope  Innocent 
III.  and  his  successors,  the  kingdoms  of  England 
and  Ireland,  together  with  all  the  rights  belonging 
to  them ;  and  will  hold  them  of  the  pope  as  his 
vassal.  I  will  be  faithful  to  God,  to  the  church 
of  Rome,  to  the  pope  my  lord,  and  to  his  success- 
ors lawfully  appointed,  and  I  bind  myself  to  pay 
him  a  tribute  of  one  thousand  marks  of  silver 
yearly,  viz  :  seven  hundred  for  the  kingdom  of 
England,  and  three  hundred  for  Ireland."  This 
imprudence  brought  extreme  disgrace  and  immense 
evils  upon  the  king. 

A  most  furious  quarrel  was  carried  on  between 
pope  Gregory  IX.  and  the  emperor  Frederic  II. 
Having  before  excommunicated  him,  which  he 
little  regarded,  the  pope  thundered  forth  his  bull 
against  the  emperor  in  the  followinsr  style  ; — "  A 
beast  of  blasphemy,  replete  with  names,  is  risen 
from  the  sea,  with  the  feet  of  a  bear,  the  face  of  a 
lion,  and  members  of  other  beasts;  which,  like  the 
proud,  hath  opened  his  mouth  against  trie  holy 
name,  not  even  fearing  to  throw  his  arrows  against 
the  tabernacle  of  God,  and  the  saints  that  dwell  in 
heaven,"  &c.  Frederic  met  this  bull  by  a  reply 
in  which  he  styles  his  holiness  "  the  great  dragon, 
the  antichrist,"  of  whom  it  is  written,  "  and  an- 


THlrTEEXTH    CENTURY.  181 

other  red  horse  arose  from  the  sea,  and  he  that 
sat  upon  him  took  peace  from  the  earth,"  &c. 
This  quarrel  rekindled  the  two  factions  of  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibelines,  whose  cities  were  given 
up  to  indiscriminate  butchery. 

V.  Many  new  orders  of  monks  originated  in 
this  century,  some  of  which  soon  ceased,  and 
others  have  continued  to  the  present  time.  But 
none  equalled  in  numbers,  privileges,  and  reputa- 
tion, the  Mendicant  Orders.  These  multiplied  so 
greatly  that  they  became  a  heavy  burden,  not  only 
upon  the  people,  but  also  upon  the  church.  This 
evil  Gregory  X.  attempted  to  correct  in  the  gen- 
eral council  of  Lyons,  A.'  D.  1272,  and  reduced 
them  to  four  orders  ;  viz  : — Dominicans,  Francis- 
cans, Carmelites,  and  Augustinian  Eremites. 
"  As  these  orders  had  liberty  from  the  pontiffs  to 
spread  themselves  every  where  and  to  instruct  the 
people  and  to  teach  the  youth ;  and  as  they  ex- 
hibited a  far  greater  show  of  piety  and  sanctity 
than  the  older  orders  of  monks,  all  Europe  sud- 
denly burst  forth  in  admiration  and  reverence  for 
them.  Very  many  cities,  as  appears  from  the 
most  credible  documents,  were  divided  for  their 
sakes  into  four  sections  ;  of  which,  the  first  was 
assigned  to  the  Dominicans,  the  second  to  the 
Franciscans,  the  third  to  the  Carmelites,  and  the 
fourth  to  the  Augustinians.  The  people  frequented, 
almost  exclusively,  the  churches  of  the  mendicants, 
and  but  seldom  asked  for  the  sacraments,  as  they 
are  called,  or  for  burial,  except  among  them  : 
which  naturally  called  forth  grievous  complaints, 
from  the  ordinary  priests  who  had  the  charge  of 
the  parishes.  Indeed,  the  history  of  this  and  the 
following  centuries,  shows,  that  so  great  was  the 
reputation  and  influence  of  these  mendicant  Friars, 
16 


182  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

that  they  were  employed  in  transactions  of  the 
highest  magnitude,  in  negotiations  for  peace,  in 
the  ratitication  of  treaties,  in  shaping  the  policy 
of  courts,  in  arranging  financial  concerns,  and  in 
various  other  functions  totally  at  variance  with 
the  monastic  profession."  But  of  these  four  orders, 
the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  were  by  far  the 
most  successful.  They  had  the  direction  of  nearly 
every  thing  in  church  and  state,  and  held  the 
highest  offices  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil.  What 
the  Jesuits  were,  after  the  reformation  by  Luther 
■commenced,  the  same  were  the  Dominicans  and 
Franciscans,  from  the  thirteenth  century  to  the 
times  of  Luther. 

VI.  The  founder  of  the  Dominicans  was  St. 
Dominic,  a  Spaniard.  He  was  famous  as  a 
preacher,  and  they  were  at  first  called  preacliing 
friars.  In  the  year  1277,  the  Order  had  ihirty- 
five  cloisters  for  men  in  Spain,  fifty-two  in  France, 
thirty-two  in  Tuscany,  fifty-three  in  Germany, 
forty-six  in  Lombardy,  thirty  in  Hungary,  thirty- 
six  in  Poland,  twenty-eight  in  Denmark,  forty  in 
England,  besides  some  in  other  countries,  and  a 
large  number  of  nunneries.  The  next  year  it 
counted  four  hundred  and  seventeen  cloisters. 

VII.  St.  Francis,  the  author  of  the  Franciscans, 
was,  in  his  youth,  wild  and  profligate ;  but,  after 
recovering  from  a  dangerous  illness,  brought  on 
by  his  licentious  practices,  he  became  as  extrava- 
gant in  religion,  as  he  had  been  before  in  his 
worldly  pleasures.  He  clothed  himself  in  skins, 
and  lived  like  a  beggar,  travelling  up  and  down 
the  country,  and  exhorting  all  to  become  reli- 
gious. Some  regarded  him  as  insane,  and  others 
as  a  saint.  In  1210  he  had  but  eleven  followers, 
when  he  obtained  leave  of  the  pope  to  continue 


THIRTEP^NTH    CENTURY.  183 

his  monastery.  In  1211,  he  sent  his  monks  all 
over  Italy,  to  preach,  and  beg  their  bread.  Fran- 
cis himself  travelled,  and  preached,  and  pretended 
to  have  revelations,  and  work  miracles. 

As  these  mendicant  orders  devoted  themselves 
to  the  cause  of  the  popes,  and  were  exceedingly 
useful  to  them  in  sustaining  their  power  and 
authority  ;  so  the  popes  conferred  upon  them  very 
great  privileges  and  prerogatives.  They  were 
permitted  to  travel  and  preach  publicly  in  all 
places,  and  without  a  license  from  the  bishops,  to 
be  confessors  to  all  who  wished  to  employ  them, 
and  to  grant  absolutions.  They  were  also  in- 
trusted, particularly  the  Franciscans,  with  ample 
power  to  grant  indulgences  ;  the  sale  of  which 
might  furnish  them  with  the  means  of  support. 
In  consequence  of  these  privileges,  their  pride 
and  presumption  rose  to  a  very  great  height. 
They  professed  to  have  a  divine  impulse  and 
commission  to  illustrate  and  maintain  the  religion 
o^  Jesus.  "  They  treated  with  the  utmost  inso- 
lence and  contempt  all  the  different  orders  of  the 
priesthood  ;  they  affirmed  without  a  blush,  that 
the  true  method  of  obtaining  salvation  was  re- 
vealed to  them  alone  ;  proclaimed  with  ostentation 
the  superior  efficacy  and  virtue  of  their  indul- 
gences ;  and  vaunted  beyond  measure  their  inte- 
rest at  the  court  of  heaven,  and  their  familiar 
connexion  with  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Virgin 
Mary,  and  the  saints  in  glory.  By  these  impious 
wiles,  they  so  deluded  and  captivated  the  miser- 
able and  blinded  multitude,  that  they  would  not 
intrust  any  other  but  the  Mendicants  with  the 
care  of  their  souls.  As  an  instance  of  the  arts 
which  they  practised  in  order  to  delude  the  peo- 
ple, the  Carmelites  gave  out  that  the  Virgin  Mary 


184  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

had  appeared  to  one  Simon  Stock,  a  general  of 
their  order,  who  died  near  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  and  had  promised  him  that  no  person 
should  be  eternally  lost  who  should  expire  clothed 
in  the  short  mantle,  worn  on  the  shoulders  by  the 
Carmelites,  and  called  the  scapular.  And  this 
ridiculous  and  wicked  fiction,  was  countenanced 
and  sustained  by  the  popes. 

These  prerogatives  of  the  mendicant  orders^ 
and  their  popularity,  produced  deadly  hatred  be- 
tween them  and  the  bishops  and  priests,  and 
caused  violent  struggles  and  commotions  in  every 
country  of  Europe,  and  even  in  the  city  of  Rome 
itself. 

A  violent  contest  arose  between  the  Dominicans 
and  the  University  of  Paris,  which  was  continued 
through  nearly  half  this  century.  The  Domini- 
cans claimed  the  privilege  of  having  two  theolo- 
gical chairs  in  that  institution,  which  the  univer- 
sity was  unwilling  to  grant.  But  the  Dominicans, 
vigorously  sustained  by  the  pope,  finally  pre- 
vailed. 

"  But  these  very  orders,"  says  Mosheim, 
"which  seemed  to  be  the  principal  supports  of 
the  Romish  power,  gave  the  pontiffs  immense 
trouble,  not  long  after  the  decease  of  Dominic 
and  Francis ;  and  the  difficulties,  though  often 
dispelled  for  a  time,  continually  recurred,  and 
brought  the  church  into  great  jeopardy.  In  the 
first  place,  these  two  most  powerful  orders  con- 
tended with  each  other  for  precedence ;  and 
attacked  and  warred  upon  each  other  in  their 
publications,  with  invectives  and  criminations. 
Attempts  were  frequently  made  to  stop  these  con- 
tentions ;  but  the  firebrand  that  kindled  them 
could  never  be  extinguished.     In  the  next  place 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  185 

the  Franciscan  fraternity  was  early  split  into  fac- 
tions, which  time  only  strengthened  and  rendered 
inveterate;  and  these  factions  not  only  disturbed 
the  peace  of  the  church,  but  shook  even  the 
sovereign  powers  and  majesty  of  the  pontiffs  them- 
selves. Nor  will  it  appear  doubtful,  to  one  who 
attentively  considers  the  course  of  events  in  the 
Latin  church  from  this  period  onward,  that  these 
mendicant  orders,  in  part  undesignedly,  and  in 
part  knowingly  and  intentionally,  gave  mortal 
wounds  to  the  authority  of  the  Romish  church, 
and  caused  the  people  to  wish  for  a  reformation 
in  the  church." 

The  first  subject  of  contention  among  the  Fran- 
ciscans, regarded  the  strictness  of  their  rule. 
St.  Francis  enjoined  upon  his  friars  absolute 
poverty.  His  rule  was  in  these  words :  "  The 
brethren  may  appropriate  nothing  to  themselves, 
neither  house,  nor  land,  nor  any  other  thing ;  but 
as  strangers  and  foreigners  in  this  world,  serving 
the  Lord  in  poverty  and  humility,  let  them  go 
relying  confidently  on  alms  or  begging.  This  is 
that  height  of  deep  poverty,  which  hath  consti- 
tuted you,  my  dearest  brethren,  the  heirs  and 
kinjTs  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  But  soon  after 
his  death,  many  of  them  departed  from  this 
rigorous  law,  and  desired  to  have  their  rule 
modified  and  relaxed.  This  gave  great  offence 
to  others,  who  were  called  the  Spiritual.  A 
perplexing  controversy  having  thus  arisen,  Inno- 
cent IV.  in  the  year  1245,  decided  according  to 
the  views  of  those  that  wished  their  rule  to  be 
relaxed  ;  declaring  that  they  might  hold  lands, 
houses,  furniture,  books,  &c.  and  might  use  them 
freely  ;  but  that  the  right  of  j^roj^erty,  the  legal 
possession^  or  oivnerskij)^  of  the  whole  should 
16* 


186  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

belong  to  St.  Peter,  and  to  the  church  of  Rome, 
without  whose  consent,  nothing  should  be  sold, 
exchanged,  or  in  any  way  transferred  to  others. 
This  was  doubtless  a  very  politic  decision,  and 
in  periect  keeping  with  the  general  character  of 
St.  Peter  of  Rome;  but  it  gave  great  umbrage  to 
the  Sin  rituals,  who  pronounced  it  an  unrighteous 
perversion  of  their  rule,  and  in  consequence  of 
which,  some  retired  into  the  woods  and  deserts, 
and  others  were  sent  into  exile  by  the  general  of 
the  order. 

Another  dispute  rose  among  the  Franciscans  re- 
specting The  Everlasting  Gospel,  a  book  so  called, 
ascribed  (whether  truly  or  falsely  is  uncertain) 
to  one  Joachim,  an  Italian  abbot,  and  a  famous 
prophet  of  that«day.  This  work  took  its  name 
from  Rev.  xiv.  6,  and  predicted  that  a  new  and 
more  perfect  gospel  was  about  to  be  promulgated, 
by  poor  persons  divinely  commissioned,  in  the 
age  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  the  'Spirituals 
eagerly  seized  upon  and  appropriated  to  them- 
selves. One  of  their  number  published  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  Everlasting  Gospel,  in  which  he 
asserted  that  the  true  and  Everlasting  Gospel  of 
God  was  exhibited  to  mankind  by  St.  Francis, 
who  was  the  angel  that  John  saw  flying  in  the 
midst  of  heaven;  that  the  Gospel  of  Christ 
would  be  abrogated  in  the  year  1260,  and  this 
new  and  eternal  Gospel  take  its  place,  and  that 
the  ministers  by  whom  this  great  change  would 
be  brought  about,  were  to  be  itinerant  barefooted 
friars.  This  gave  great  offence,  and  caused  great 
contentions,  until  the  book  was  first  condemned 
by  the  pope,  and  afterwards  publicly  burnt. 
"  Near  the  close  of  this  century  originated  in 
Italy  the  Fratricelli  and  Bizochi,  parties  that  in 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  187 

Germany  and  France  were  denominated  Beghards , 
and  which  first  Boniface  VIII.  and  afterwards 
other  pontiffs,  condemned,  and  wished  to  see  per- 
secuted by  the  Inquisition,  and  exterminated  in 
every  possible  way." 

Vill.  The  theology  of  this  century  became 
still  more  corrupt.  Little  regard  was  paid  to  the 
Scriptures,  at  least  to  their  plain  and  simple 
meaning.  The  scholastic  doctors,  with  Aristotle 
in  one  hand,  and  the  Bible  in  the  other,  philoso- 
phized, disputed,  divided,  defined,  distinguished, 
and  at  the  same  time  greatly  obscured  the  simple 
and  beautiful  truths  of  the  religion  of  Christ. 
But  no  sentiment  was  more  pernicious  than  that 
which  taught  that  men  can  perform  more  than 
God  requires  of  them,  and  that  all  religion  con- 
sists in  the  external  homage  of  the  lips,  in  certain 
bodily  gestures,  and  external  penances.  The 
manner  in  which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
are  present  in  the  Eucharist,  had  as  yet  been  a 
matter  in  dispute,  and  no  authoritative  decision 
had  as  yet  been  made  by  the  church  upon  the 
subject.  But  in  the  fourth  Lateran  council, 
A.  D.  1215,  Innocent  III.  a  most  imperious  pon- 
tiff*, without  asking  the  opinion  of  any  one,  pub- 
lished seventy  decrees,  in  which,  among  other 
things  calculated  to  increase  the  power  of  the 
pontiffs,  and  give  importance  to  the  clergy,  he 
decided  the  question  respecting  the  Eucharist, 
and  pronounced  that  opinion  to  be  the  only  true 
one,  which  is  now  universally  received  in  the 
Romish  church.  To  this  new  article  of  faith,  he 
consecrated  the  hitherto  unknown  term  transub- 
stantiation.  He  added  also,  as  an  article  of  faith, 
that  every  one  is  bound  by  a  positive  divine  or- 
dinance, to  enumerate  and  confess  his  sins  to  a 


188  ECiCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

priest.  Up  to  this  time,  ultiiough  the  confession 
of  sins  was  held  to  be  a  duty,  yet  every  one  had 
been  at  liberty,  as  he  saw  fit,  either  to  confess 
them  mentally  to  God  alone,  or  orally  to  a  priest 
also.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  greatly  these  two 
dogmas  were  calculated  to  increase  the  power  and 
authority  of  the  priests. 

IX.  "  Nothing  perhaps  will  show  more  clearly 
the  unsoundness  of  the  religion  of  the  age,  gene- 
rally, and  its  discordance  with  the  Bible,  than  the 
history  of  the  societies  of  Flagellants  ;  which 
first  originated  in  Italy,  in  the  year  1260,  and 
afterwards  spread  over  a  large  part  of  Europe. 
A  great  multitude  of  persons,  of  all  ranks  and 
ages,  and  of  both  sexes,  ran  about  the  streets  of 
cities  and  country  towns  with  whips  in  their 
hands,  lashing  their  naked  bodies  ;  and  they  ex- 
pected by  this  voluntary  punishment,  by  their 
frightful  countenances  and  their  distracted  cries, 
to  procure  the  divine  compassion  for  themselves 
and  others.  This  method  of  placating  the  Su- 
preme Being,  was  perfectly  accordant  with  the 
nature  of  religion  as  it  existed  in  that  age.  Nor 
did  these  Flagellants  do  any  thing  but  what  they 
had  learned  from  the  monks,  and  particularly 
from  the  mendicant  orders.  And  hence  they 
were  at  first  highly  revered  and  extolled  for  their 
sanctity,  not  only  by  the  populace,  but  also  by 
their  rulers  and  governors.  But  when  the  tur- 
bulent and  extravagant,  and  those  contaminated 
with  ridiculous  opinions,  joined  themselves  to 
the  primitive  and  more  decent  and  moral  Fla- 
gellants, the  emperors  and  the  pontiffs  issued 
decrees  to  put  a  stop  to  this  religious  frenzy." 
Although  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  had 
been  decided  ex  cathedra^  and  pronounced  by  the 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  189 

infallible  iiead  of  the  Romisii  church  to  be  the 
true  doctrine,  yet  there  were  many  as  yet  who 
denied  it,  and  maintained  what  is  called  the 
real  presence,  or  consubstantiation.  Pre-eminent 
among  these  was  John,  a  subtle  doctor  of  Paris, 
near  the  close  of  this  century.  / 

X.  Rites  and  ceremonies  continued  to  be  in-  ^ 
creased.  Religion  had  become  so  exclusively  an 
external  thing,  that  every  means  was  studied  of 
presenting  it  to  the  eyes  and  external  senses. 
Hence  at  stated  times,  and  particularly  on  the 
festivals,  they  had  a  kind  of  religious  shows,  or 
dramatic  representations  of  all  the  more  striking 
facts  in  sacred  history. — The  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation  led,  of  course,  to  many  ceremonies, 
by  which  the  bread  and  wine,  now  become  the 
soul  and  body  and  Divinity  of  Christ,  might  be 
sufficiently  honoured.  "Hence  those  splendid 
caskets,  in  which  God,  in  the  form  of  bread, 
might  reside  as  in  a  house,  and  be  carried  from 
place  to  place  :  hence  lamps,  and  other  decora- 
tions, were  added  to  these  reputed  domicils  of  a 
present  Deity  ;  hence  this  bread  was  carried  in 
splendid  processions,  along  the  streets,  to  the 
sick;  and  other  rites  of  like  character  were  in- 
troduced. But  to  crown  all,  the  festival  of  the 
body  of  Christ,  was  instituted.  This  was  done 
at  the  instance  of  one  Juliana,  a  nun  who  lived 
at  Liege  in  the  Netherlands.  "  This  fanatical  wo- 
man declared,  that  as  often  as  she  addressed  her- 
self to  God,  or  to  the  saints  in  prayer,  she  saw 
the  full  moon  with  a  small  defect  or  breach  in  it ; 
and  that,  having  long  studied  to  find  out  the  sig- 
nification of  this  strange  appearance,  she  was 
inwardly  informed  by  the  Spirit,  that  the  moon 
signified  the  church,  and  that  /he  defect  or  breach 


190  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

was  the  want  of  an  annual  festival  in  honour  of 
the  holy  sacrament."  Doubtless  it  would  have 
bordered  on  excessive  incredulity,  not  to  have 
received  such  a  report  of  a  pious  nun  ;  pope 
Urban  IV.  therefore,  in  the  year  1264,  supplied 
the  defect,  and  imposed  the  festival  upon  the 
whole  church  !  It  was  established  and  confirmed 
in  the  council  of  Vienne,  A.  D.  1311.  At  the 
close  of  this  century,  Boniface  VIII.  added  to  the 
ceremonies  of  the  church,  the  year  of  jubilee ; 
which  is  celebrated  at  Rome  with  great  pomp  to 
the  present  day.  A  rumour  in  some  way  got 
abroad,  that  all  who  should  devoutly  visit  St. 
Peter's  church  in  the  course  of  those  years  that 
terminate  centuries,  would  thereby  merit  indul- 
gences for  a  hundred  years.  The  pope  upon  in- 
quiring into  the  subject,  pronounced  it  to  be  true ; 
and  by  an  epistle  sent  throughout  all  Christendom, 
decided  that  in  every  centennial  year,  all  who 
would  confess  their  sins,  and  devoutly  visit  the 
temple  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  at  Rome,  should 
receive  plenary  absolution  of  their  sins.  This 
brought  vast  numbers  to  Rome  from  all  parts  of 
Europe.  "  The  public  roads  in  Italy  exhibited 
an  almost  continuous  procession,  or  a  line  of 
march  from  one  end  to  the  other ;  and  nearly 
every  day  two  hundred  thousand  foreigners  might 
be  counted  at  Rome.  Indeed  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  two  millions  of  people  visited  Rome 
during  the  year  1300;  and  the  concourse  there 
was  so  great,  that  many  were  trodden  to  death 
by  the  throng.  So  happy  a  result  made  the  pope 
and  the  people  of  Rome  wish  that  a  century  was 
not  so  long  an  interval.  Therefore  Clement  VI. 
repeated  the  jubilee,  A.  D.  1350;  and  Nicolaus  V. 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  191 

established  the  festival  to  be  held  once  in  twenty- 
five  years. 

XI.  Dun'ng  the  whole  of  this  century,  the  popes 
were  engaged  in  cruel  and  bloody  wars  against 
heretics ;  i.  e.  such  as  disssented  in  any  degree 
from  the  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome,  or  dis- 
puted the  power  and  prerogatives  claimed  by  the 
popes.  These  heretics,  under  different  names,  and 
holding  very  different  sentiments,  were  scattered 
throughout  all  Europe,  and  in  some  parts  were  very 
numerous.  In  order  to  search  out  and  detect 
them,  the  pope  stationed  his  legates  in  almost  eve- 
ry city,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  suspected. 
These  legates,  from  the  duties  assigned  them,  were 
called  Inquisitors.  In  the  next  place,  several  per- 
sons were  associated  together,  constituting  a  board 
of  Inquisitors.  In  1233,  Gregory  IX.  altered  the 
institution,  and  conferred  on  the  preaching  monks, 
or  Dominicans,  the  inquisition  for  heresy  in 
France ;  and  by  a  formal  bull,  freed  the  bishops 
from  that  duty.  From  this  period  we  are  to  date 
the  commencement  of  the  dreadful  tribunal  of  the 
Inquisition  ;  which,  in  this  and  the  following  cen- 
turies, subdued  such  hosts  of  heretics,  either  by 
forcing  them  back  into  the  church,  or  by  deliver- 
ing them  up  to  the  temporal  authorities  to  be  burn- 
ed. The  Dominicans  erected,  first  at  Toulouse, 
and  then  at  other  places,  permanent  courts,  before 
which  were  arraigned,  not  only  heretics,  and  those 
suspected  of  heresy,  but  likewise  those  that  were 
accused  of  magic,  soothsaying,  Judaism,  sorcery, 
and  the  like.  The  following  account  of  the  Inqui- 
sition may  be  interesting. 

When  the  Inquisition  discovered  a  transgressor 
of  their  laws,  either  by  common  report,  or  by  their 
spies,  or  by  an  informer,  he  was  cited  three  times 


192  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

to  appear  before  them  ;  and  if  he  did  not  appear, 
he  was  forthwith  condemned.  It  was  safest  to 
appear  on  the  first  citation  ;  because  the  longer  a 
man  delayed,  the  more  guilty  he  would  be ;  and 
the  Inquisition  had  their  spies,  and  a  thousand  con- 
cealed ways  of  getting  an  absconding  heretic  into 
their  power.  When  a  supposed  heretic  was  once 
in  the  hands  of  the  Inquisition,  no  one  dared  to  in- 
quire after  him,  or  write  to  him,  or  intercede  for 
him.  When  every  thing  belonging  to  the  person 
seized  was  in  their  hands,  then  the  process  began  ; 
and  it  was  protracted  in  the  most  tedious  manner. 
AtieT  many  days,  or  perhaps  months,  which  the 
accused  dragged  out  in  a  loathsome  dungeon,  the 
keeper  of  the  prison  asked  him,  as  it  were  accident- 
ally, if  he  wished  to  have  a  hearing.  When  he 
appeared  before  his  judges,  they  inquired,  just  as 
if  they  knew  nothing  about  him,  who  he  was,  and 
what  he  wanted.  If  he  wished  to  be  informed 
what  otfence  he  had  committed,  he  was  admonish- 
ed to  contess  his  faults  himself.  If  he  confessed 
nothing,  time  was  given  him  for  reflection,  and  he 
was  remanded  to  prison.  If  after  a  long  time  al- 
lowed him,  he  still  confessed  nothing,  he  must 
swear  to  answer  truly  all  the  questions  put  to  him. 
If  he  would  not  swear,  he  was  condemned  without 
further  process.  If  he  swore  to  give  answer,  he 
was  questioned  in  regard  to  his  whole  life  without 
making  known  to  him  his  olTence.  He  was,  how- 
ever  promised  a  pardon,  if  he  would  truly  confess 
his  offences  :  an  artifice  this,  by  which  his  judges 
often  learned  more  than  they  knew  before  against 
him.  At  last  the  charges  against  him  were  pre- 
sented to  him  in  writing,  and  counsel  also  was  as- 
signed him,  who,  however,  only  advised  him  to 
confess  fully  his  faults.    The  accuser  and  informe,. 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  193 

against  him  were  not  made  known  to  him,  but  the 
real  charges  against  him  were  put  into  his  hands. 
He  was  allowed  time  for  his  defence  ;  but  his  accus- 
er, and  the  witnesses  against  him,  he  could  know 
only  by  conjecture.  Sometimes  ne  was  so  fortunate 
as  to  discover  who  they  were  ;  but  rarely  were  they 
presented  before  him  or  confronted  with  him.  If  his 
answers  did  not  satisfy  his  judges,  or  if  the  allega- 
tions against  him  were  not  fully  proved,  resort 
was  had  to  torture  :  a  transaction  which  well  nigh 
exceeded  the  sufferings  endured  by  the  first  Christ- 
ians when  persecuted  by  the  pagans.  The  torture 
was  by  the  rope,  by  water  and  by  fire.  The  rope 
was  passed  under  the  arms,  which  were  tied  be- 
hind the  back  of  the  accused.  By  this  rope  he  was 
drawn  up  into  the  air  with  a  pulley,  and  there  left 
to  swing  for  a  time  ;  and  then  suddenly  let  fall  to 
within  half  a  foot  of  the  ground  ;  by  the  shock  of 
which  fall,  all  his  joints  were  dislocated.  If  he 
still  confessed  nothing,  the  torture  by  water  was 
tried.  After  making  him  drink  a  great  quantity 
of  water,  he  was  laid  upon  a  hollowed  bench  ; 
across  the  middle  of  this  bench  a  stick  of  timber 
passed,  which  kept  the  body  of  the  offender  sus- 
pended, and  caused  him  most  intense  pain  in  the 
back  bone.  The  most  cruel  torture  was  that  by 
fire  ;  in  which  his  feet  being  smeared  with  grease, 
were  directed  towards  a  hot  fire,  and  the  soles  of 
them  left  to  burn  until  he  would  confess.  Each  of 
these  tortures  was  continued  as  long  as,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  physician  of  the  Inquisition,  the 
man  was  able  to  bear  it.  He  might  now  confess 
what  he  would,  but  still  the  torture  would  be  re- 
peated, first  to  discover  the  object  and  motives  of 
the  acknowledged  oflJence,  and  then  to  make  him 
expose  his  accomplices.  If,  when  tortured,  he 
17 


194  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

confessed  nothing,  many  snares  were  laid  to  elici: 
from  him,  unconsciously,  his  offence.  The  con- 
clusion was,  that  the  accused,  when  he  seemed  to 
have  satisfied  his  judges,  was  condemned,  accord- 
ing to  the  measure  of  his  offence,  to  death,  or  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  or  to  the  galleys,  or  to  be 
scourged  ;  and  he  was  delivered  over  to  the  civil 
authorities,  who  were  instructed  to  spare  his  life, 
as  the  church  never  thirsted  for  blood  ;  but  yet 
they  would  experience  persecution  if  they  did  not 
carry  the  decisions  of  the  court  into  execution. 
What  an  infernal  device  is  the  Inquisition  !  What 
innocent  person  could  escape  destruction,  if  an  in- 
quisition were  disposed  to  destroy  him  ?  A  here- 
tic, even  if  he  had  been  acquitted  by  the  pope  him- 
self, might  still  be  condemned  to  die  by  the  Inqui- 
sition. An  equivocal  promise  of  pardon  might 
be  given,  to  induce  him  to  make  confession,  but 
the  promise  must  not  be  fulfilled  when  the  object 
of  it  was  obtained.  Even  death  did  not  free  a 
person  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Inquisition  ; 
for  a  deceased  heretic  must  be  burned  in  effigy. 
Would  not  every  feeling  of  humanity  be  outraged 
by  followmg  such  principles  as  these  ?  The  in- 
quisitorial judges  do  not  deny  that  by  such  pro- 
ceedings, many  innocent  persons  perish  along  with 
the  guilty  ;  but  this  does  not  trouble  them.  Better, 
say  they,  that  a  hundred  innocent  persons,  who 
are  good  catholics,  should  be  cut  off  and  go  to 
Paradise,  than  to  let  one  heretic  escape,  who  might 
poison  many  souls,  and  plunge  them  in  endless 
perdition. 

Besides  this  inquisitorial  process,  the  pope 
strongly  urged  upon  the  king  and  nobles  of  France 
a  holy  war  against  the  heretics,  that  were  very 
numerous  in  the  southern  part  of  that  kingdom ; 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  195 

and  promised  ample  indulgences  to  those  who 
should  engage  in  it.  This  crusade  was  preached 
up  by  the  Cistercian  monks;  and  in  the  year  1209, 
a  large  army  was  collected,  and  commenced  their 
holy  war  against  the  heretics,  who  bore  the  gen- 
eral name  of  Albigenses.  This  war  was  carried 
on  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  and  with  various 
success,  for  several  years  together.  The  director 
of  the  war  was  Arnald,  a  Cistercian  abbot  and 
the  pope's  legate ;  the  commander  in  chief  of  the 
forces,  was  Simon,  earl  of  Montfort.  At  the  cap- 
ture of  Minerbe,  Simon  found  one  hundred  and 
forty  Manichseans ;  all  of  whom  he  burned  at  the 
stake,  because  they  would  not  abjure  their  religion. 
At  Beziers,  six  thousand  persons  were  slain ;  and 
at  Toulouse,  twenty  thousand.  When  the  crusa- 
ders had  captured  a  castle  called  Brom,  in  which 
were  found  one  hundred  persons,  Simon  ordered 
all  their  noses  to  be  cut  off,  and  their  eyes  to  be 
put  out,  except  a  single  eye  of  one  individual,  who 
might  serve  as  guide  to  the  rest,  who  were  sent  to 
Cabrieres,  to  terrify  others. 

XII.  But  all  this  severity  of  the  popes  against 
heretics,  and  the  various  means  used  to  suppress 
them,  could  not  extirpate  them,  or  prevent  new 
and  pernicious  sects  from  springing  up.  One  of 
the.  most  considerable  of  these,  was  that  of  the 
Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  free  Spirit,  which  at 
this  time  secretly  spread  over  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany ;  and,  by  a  great  show  of  piety,  drew 
after  it  many  persons  of  both  sexes.  Clothed  in 
a  singular  manner,  they  ran  about  the  cities  and 
the  country,  begging  their  bread  with  loud  vo- 
ciferations ;  for  they  maintained  that  labour  pre- 
vented the  elevation  of  the  soul  to  God.  They 
were  accompanied  by  women,  with  whom  they 


196  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

lived  in  the  greatest  familiarity.  "These  breth- 
ren, who  boasted  of  being  free  from  the  law,  and 
of  having  attained  to  the  freedom  of  the  Spirit,  pro- 
fessed a  rigid  and  austere  species  of  mystical 
theology,  based  upon  philosophical  principles,  that 
were  not  far  removed  from  the  impiety  of  those 
called  Pantheists.  For  they  held  that  all  things 
emanated  from  God,  and  would  revert  back  into 
him ;  that  rational  souls  were  parts  of  the  Su- 
preme Being,  and  that  the  whole  universe  was 
God ;  that  a  man,  by  turning  his  thoughts  in- 
ward, and  withdrawing  his  attention  from  all 
sensible  objects,  may  become  united  in  an  inex- 
plicable manner  with  the  Parent  and  first  cause 
of  all  things,  and  be  one  with  him  ;  that  persons 
thus  immersed  in  the  vortex  of  the  Deity,  by  long 
contemplation  attained  to  perfect  freedom,  and 
became  divested  not  only  of  all  their  lusts,  but 
hkewise  of  the  instincts  of  nature.  From  these, 
and  similar  principles,  they  inferred  that  a  person 
thus  raised  up  to  God,  and  absorbed  as  it  were  in 
the  Divine  nature,  was  himself  God,  and  such  a 
Son  of  God  as  Christ  was ;  and  therefore  was 
raised  above  all  laws,  human  and  divine.  And 
they  maintained,  of  course,  that  all  external  wor- 
ship of  God,  prayer,  fasting,  baptism,  the  sacred 
supper,  &c.,  were  mere  elements  for  children ; 
which  a  man  no  longer  needed,  when  converted 
into  God  himself,  and  detached  from  this  visible 
world." 

Among  these  people,  there  were  some  consci- 
entious and  upright  persons,  who  did  not  push 
their  doctrines  so  far,  nor  extend  that  liberty  of 
the  spirit  which  they  professed  beyond  an  exemp- 
tion from  external  worship  and  ecclesiastical  law. 
They  made  religion  onnsist  exclusively  in  internal 


FOUKTEENTH    CENTURY.  197 

worship,  and  looked  with  contempt  on  monastic 
rules  of  discipline,  and  other  things  held  sacred. 
Not  a  few  of  this  description,  being  apprehended 
by  the  Inquisitors,  expired  cheerfully  and  calmly 
in  the  flames.  "  But  there  were  others  of  a  worse 
character  among  them,  and  whose  piety  was  as 
foolish  as  it  was  dangerous.  These  maintained, 
that  by  persevering  contemplation,  all  the  in- 
stincts  of  nature  might  be  eradicated,  and  ex- 
cluded from  the  godlike  soul,  and  a  kind  of  holy 
or  divine  stupor  be  brought  over  the  mind." 
Carrying  out  this  principle,  they  set  decency  at 
defiance,  and  seemed  to  think  that  the  utmost 
elevation  of  man  is  to  exhibit  the  senselessness  of 
the  brute. 


CENTURY    XIV. 

1.  Religious  wars. — 2.  Literature.— 3.  Pope's  claims  of  au- 
thority, and  bull  Unam  Sanctam. — 4.  Two  popes. — 5-  Men- 
dicants.— 6.  John  Wickliffe. — 7.  Contests  of  Franciscans. — 
8.  Cellites. — 9.  Theology. — 10.  Ceremonies. — 11.  Sects. 

I.  Many  efforts  were  made  by  the  popes,  in 
this  century,  to  renew  the  holy  wars  against  the 
Turks  and  Saracens.  Several  armies  were  raised 
at  diiferent  times,  and  considerable  preparations 
were  made  to  fit  out  expeditions  to  Palestine ;  but 
from  one  cause  and  another,  they  all  failed,  and 
nothing  was  done.  During  this  century,  the 
Christian  religion  was  almost  extirpated  in  the 
East  by  the  Turks  and  Tartars.  Tamerlane, 
the  powerful  emperor  of  the  Tartars,  as  a  disciple 
17* 


y 


198  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  Mohammed,  thought  it  his  duty  to  make  war 
upon  the  Christians,  in  order  to  convert  them  to 
the  true  faith,  and  therefore  inflicted  upon  them 
numberless  evils;  cruelly  butchering  some,  and 
dooming  others  to  j)erpetual  slavery. 

During  this  century,  th«  barbarians  in  the  north 
of  Europe  that  still  adhered  to  their  ancient  idola- 
try, were,  by  one  means  and  another,  brought 
over  to  the  Christian  taith.  In  this  work,  the 
Teutonic  knights  performed  no  small  share,  by 
wars  and  massacres.  The  Jews  suffered  great 
persecution  in  many  countries  in  this  century ; 
and  many  of  them  were  compelled  to  profess 
Christianity,  in  order  to  save  their  lives.  The 
Saracens,  or  Moors,  still  maintained  a  footing  in 
Spain ;  and  against  them  continual  wars  were 
waged  by  the  Christian  kings  of  Castile,  Aragon, 
and  Navarre. 

11.  The  literature  and  philosophy  of  this  age, 
although  generally  improving,  were  yet  very  im- 
perfect, and  not  very  profitable.  Aristotle  reigned 
in  the  schools,  and  violent  contests  were  carried 
on  between  the  Realists  and  Nominalists.  Among 
the  latter,  William  Occam  and  John  Buridan  dis- 
tinguished themselves.  Astrology,  or  the  art  of 
prognosticating  the  fortunes  of  men  by  the  stars, 
was  extensively  cultivated  by  the  philosophers  of 
this  day.  Yet  caution  was  necessary  in  order  to 
avoid  impeachment  for  magic,  and  to  escape  the 
hands  of  the  Inquisitors.  This  caution  was  not 
sufficiently  observed  by  Ceccus  Asculanus,  a  very 
noted  peripatetic  philosopher,  astrologer,  mathe- 
matician, and  physician.  For,  having  by  me- 
chanical arts  performed  some  things  that  appeared 
miraculous  to  the  vulgar,  and  uttered  predictions 
that  proved  to  be  true,  he  fell  under  suspicion  of 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY.  199 

having  intercourse  with  the  devil,  and  was  com- 
mitted to  the  flames  by  the  Inquisition  at  Flo- 
rence, A.  D.  1327.  Thomas  Bradwardine,  an 
EngHshman,  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  mathematician.  The 
celebrated  Petrarch  and  Dante,  in  Italy,  gave  a 
spring  to  the  cultivation  of  polite  literature. 

III.  The  popes  and  the  clergy  of  this  age  were 
exceedingly  corrupt,  and  almost  every  kind  of 
wickedness  was  practised  and  carried  on  under 
the  guise  of  religion.  All  honest  and  good  men 
ardently  wished  for  a  reformation  of  the  church, 
both  in  its  head  and  its  members,  as  it  was  usual 
to  express  it.  But  so  great  was  now  the  papal 
power,  that  it  was  no  easy  matter  to  accomplish 
it.  Yet  this  dominion  of  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
impregnable  and  durable  as  it  seemed  to  be,  was 
gradually  undermined  and  weakened  in  this  cen- 
tury, partly  by  the  rash  insolence  of  the  pontiffs 
themselves,  and  partly  by  the  occurrence  of  cer- 
tain unexpected  events.  The  commencement  of 
the  weakening  of  the  papal  power  is  referred  to 
the  contest  between  Boniface  VIII.,  who  governed 
the  Latin  church  at  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
and  Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France,  In  a  very 
haughty  letter  addressed  to  Philip,  Boniface  main- 
tained that  all  kings  and  persons  whatsoever,  by 
divine  command,  owed  perfect  obedience  to  the 
Roman  pontiffs ;  and  this  not  only  in  religious 
matters,  but  likewise  in  secular  and  human  af- 
fairs. The  king  replied  with  great  severity. 
Boniface  then  published  the  celebrated  bull,  called 
TJnam  Sanctam.  "  In  this  bull,  the  pontiff  as- 
serts that  there  is  but  one  church  of  Christ,  under 
one  head,  as  there  was  but  one  ark  under  the 
command  of  Noah;  all  out  of  which  necessarily 


200  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

perish :  that  the  sole  head  of  the  church  on  earth 
is  Christ's  vicegerent,  St.  Peter  and  his  succes- 
sors^ who  are  amenable  to  none  but  God:  that 
both  swords,  the  spiritual  and  the  material,  are  in 
the  power  of  the  church  ;  the  latter  to  be  wielded 
for  the  church,  or  by  the  kings  and  soldiers,  at 
the  nod  and  pleasure  of  the  priesthood,  and  the 
former  to  be  wielded  by  the  church  or  the  priest- 
hood :  that  the  temporal  power  is  subjected  to 
the  spiritual ;  otherwise  the  church  would  be  a 
double-headed  monster :  that  whosoever  resists 
this  order  of  things,  resists  the  ordinance  of  God  : 
and  he  concludes  thus : — "  We  declare,  deter- 
mine, and  decree,  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  salvation,  that  every  human  being  should  be 
subject  to  the  Roman  pontiff."  The  king,  on  the 
contrary,  in  an  assembly  of  his  nobles,  publicly 
charged  the  pontiff  with  heresy,  simony,  dishones- 
ty, and  other  enormities  ;  and  urged  the  calling  of  a 
general  council,  in  order  to  depose  the  guilty  pon- 
tiff from  his  office.  The  pontiff,  in  return,  ex- 
communicated the  king  and  all  his  adherents, 
A.  D.  1303.  Upon  this,  Philip  sent  William  de 
Nogaret,  a  famous  lawyer,  and  a  bold  and  fear- 
less man,  who  raised  a  small  force,  suddenly 
attacked  Boniface,  who  was  living  securely  at 
Anagni,  made  him  prisoner,  wounded  him,  and, 
among  other  severe  indignities,  struck  him  on  the 
head  with  his  iron  gauntlet.  The  pope  was  res- 
cued out  of  his  hands,  but  died  soon  after,  from 
the  violence  of  his  rage  and  anguish  of  mind. 
This  taught  succeeding  popes  the  salutary  lesson 
that  sometimes  it  was  necessary  to  fear  the  wrath 
of  a  king,  and  to  conciliate  the  civil  powers. 
Philip  managed  to  have  a  Frenchman  created 
pontiff  at  Rome,  A.  D.  1305,  over  whom  he  could 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY.  201 

exercise  control.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Cle- 
ment v.,  and,  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of 
the  French  king,  remained  in  France,  and  trans- 
ferred the  pontifical  court  to  Avignon,  where  it 
continued  for  seventy  years.  This  period  the 
Italians  call  the  Babylonish  captivity.  The  resi- 
dence of  the  popes  at  Avignon  tended  in  no  small 
degree  to  lessen  their  power  and  influence.  The 
Ghibelline  faction  in  Italy,  hostile  to  the  popes, 
assumed  greater  boldness,  and  several  cities  re- 
volted from  the  popes.  Rome  itself  became  the 
parent  and  fomenter  of  tumults,  cabals,  and  civil 
wars ;  and  the  laws  and  decrees  sent  thither 
from  France,  were  publicly  treated  with  con- 
tempt :  and  that  not  merely  by  the  mobs,  but  also 
by  the  common  citizens.  A  great  part  of  Europe 
followed  the  example  of  Italy ;  and  numberless 
examples  show  that  the  people  of  Europe  at- 
tributed far  less  power  to  the  fulminations  and 
decrees  issued  from  France,  than  to  those  issued 
from  Rome. 

IV.  After  the  death  of  Gregory  XI.,  A.  D. 
1378,  two  popes  were  chosen :  one  assumed  the 
name  of  Urban  VI.,  and  resided  at  Rome;  the 
other  assumed  the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  and  re- 
sided at  Avignon.  The  cardinals  chose  the  first 
to  please  the  people  of  Rome,  and  the  second,  to 
please  themselves  and  others;  and  which  of  these 
was  the  legitimate  and  true  pontiff,  still  remains 
uncertain ;  nor  can  it  be  fully  ascertained  from 
all  the  documents,  which  have  been  published  in 
great  abundance  by  both  parties.  France,  Spain, 
Scotland,  Sicily,  and  Cyprus,  espoused  the  cause 
of  Clement;  the  other  countries  of  Europe  re- 
garded Urban  as  the  true  vicegerent  of  Christ. 
«'  Thus  the  unity  of  the  Latin  church,"  says  Mos- 


202  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

heim,  "  as  existing  under  one  head,  came  to  an 
end,  at  the  death  of  Gregory  XI. ;  and  that  most 
unhappy  disunion  ensued,  which  is  usually  deno- 
minated the  great  schism  of  the  West.  For  during 
fifty  years,  the  church  had  two  or  three  heads  ; 
and  the  contemporary  pontiffs  assailed  each  other 
with  excommunications,  maledictions,  and  hostile 
measures.  The  calamities  and  distress  of  those 
times  are  indescribable.  For  besides  the  perpetual 
contentions  and  wars  between  the  pontifical  fac- 
tions, which  were  ruinous  to  great  numbers,  in- 
volving them  in  loss  of  life  or  of  property,  nearly 
all  sense  of  religion  was  in  many  places  extin- 
guished, and  wickedness  daily  acquired  greater 
impunity  and  boldness.  The  clergy,  previously 
corrupt,  now  laid  aside  even  the  appearance  of 
piety  and  godliness  ;  while  those  who  called  them- 
selves Christ's  vicegerents  were  at  open  war  with 
each  other :  and  the  conscientious  people,  who 
believed  that  no  one  could  be  saved  without  living 
in  subjection  to  Christ's  vicegerent,  were  thrown 
into  the  greatest  perplexity  and  anxiety  of  mind. 
Yet  both  the  church  and  the  state  received  very 
considerable  advantages  from  these  great  calami- 
ties. For  the  nerves  of  the  pontifical  power  were 
cut  by  these  dissensions,  and  could  not  afterwards 
be  restored  ;  and  kings  and  princes,  who  had  be- 
fore been  in  a  sense  the  servants  of  the  pontiffs, 
now  became  their  judges  and  masters." 

V.  The  mendicants,  particularly  of  the  Domin- 
ican and  Franciscan  orders,  were  in  great  power 
and  authority  in  the  church  ;  and  so  great  was  theii 
reputation  for  sanctity,  and  for  power  with  God, 
that  the  most  distinguished  persons  of  both  sexes, 
some  while  in  health,  others  when  sick,  and  in  the 
Qear  prospect  of  death,  wished  to  be  received  into 


FOURTEENTH    CENTUE  ;'.  203 

their  orders,  lor  the  purpose  of  securing  the  favour 
of  God.  Many  carefully  inserted  in  their  last  wills, 
that  they  would  have  their  corpses  wrapped  in  a 
sordid  Dominican  or  Franciscan  garment,  and  be 
ouried  among  the  mendicants. — At  the  same  time, 
their  vices  and  crimes  were  such  as  to  give  great 
offence  to  many,  and  create  great  disturbance. 
Almost  universally,  the  higher  and  lower  orders 
of  the  regular  clergy,  the  universities,  and  the  oth- 
er monks,  were  bitterly  opposed  to  them.  Yet 
they  were  sustained  by  the  popes,  because  they 
found  them  excellent  tools  for  accomplishing  their 
purposes,  and  maintaining  their  power  and  au- 
thority. 

VI.  Many  individuals  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  opposition  to  the  mendicant  orders. 
Among  these  were  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Ar- 
magh in  Ireland,  and  John  de  Polliac,  a  Parisian 
doctor.  But  among  the  foes  of  the  mendicant  or- 
ders, no  one  has  obtained  greater  fame  with  pos- 
terity, than  John  Wickhffe,  an  English  doctor,  and 
professor  of  theology,  at  Oxford.  Wickliffe  was 
a  hard  student,  a  great  scholar  for  that  age,  a  sar- 
castic writer,  and  an  able  disputant.  In  the  year 
1360,  he  distinguished  himself,  by  becoming  the 
advocate  of  the  University,  against  the  mendicant 
monks,  who  infringed  the  laws  of  the  University, 
and  enticed  the  students  away  to  their  monaste- 
ries. He  afterwards  attacked  not  only  the  monks, 
but  also  the  popes  and  the  clergy ;  and  confuted 
the  prevailing  errors  of  the  day,  both  as  to  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  the  constitution  of  the 
Christian  church.  In  consequence,  he  was  accus- 
ed, and  several  efforts  made  to  effect  his  trial ;  but 
in  various  ways,  providence  seemed  to  protect 
him,  so  that  at  last  he  died  in  peace,  A.  D.  1384. 


204  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

His  doctrines,  however  were  condemned,  and  some 
forty  or  fifty  years  afterward,  his  bones  were  dug 
up  and  publicly  burnt ! 

VVicklifle  has  been  fitly  called  the  Morning  Star 
of  the  Reformation.  He  translated  the  whole 
Bible,  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  into  English ;  and 
maintained  all  the  leading  doctrines  afterwards 
maintained  by  Luther,  and  others  of  the  Reform- 
ers. The  charges  brought  against  him,  extracted 
from  his  public  lectures  and  sermons,  were  as  fol- 
lows :  "  That  there  is  one  only  universal  church 
consisting  of  the  whole  body  of  the  predestinate. — 
That  the  eucharist,  after  consecration,  was  not  the 
real  body  of  Christ,  but  only  an  emblem  or  sign 
of  it.  That  the  church  of  Rome  was  no  more  the 
head  of  the  universal  church,  than  any  other 
church  :  and  that  St.  Peter  had  no  greater  author- 
ity given  him,  than  the  rest  of  the  apostles. — That 
bishop  and  presbyter, "  in  the  apostolic  Church, 
were  the  same. — That  the  pope  had  no  more  ju- 
risdiction in  the  exercise  of  the  keys,  than  any 
other  priest. — That  if  the  church  misbehaved,  it 
was  not  only  lawful,  but  meritorious,  to  dispossess 
her  of  her  temporalities. — That  when  a  prince  or 
temporal  lord  was  convinced  that  the  church  made 
an  ill  use  of  her  endowments,  he  was  bound,  un- 
der pain  of  damnation,  to  take  them  away. — That 
the  gospel  was  sufficient  to  direct  a  Christian  in 
the  conduct  of  his  life. — That  neither  the  pope,  nor 
any  other  prelate,  ought  to  have  prisons  for  the 
punishing  of  offenders  against  the  discipline  of  the 
church." 

Vn.  Great  contests  arose  among  the  Francis- 
cans, between  the  Spirituals,  (called  also  Fratri- 
celli,)  who  were  for  adhering  to  the  strict  rule  of 
poverty,  and  severe  discipline,  prescribed  by  St, 


FOURTKENTH    CEriTURY.  205 

Francis  ;  and  those  who  were  for  a  laxer  disci- 
pline, which  had  been  sanctioned  by  the  popes, 
and  who  were  called  Brethren  of  the  community. 
These  latter  were  the  most  numerous,  and  were 
supported  by  Roman  pontiffs,  by  whose  authority 
their  rule  had  been  relaxed.  They  wore  long, 
loose,  and  good  habits,  with  ample  hoods,  or  cov- 
erings for  their  heads,  and  in  the  seasons  of  har- 
vest and  vintage,  they  laid  up  corn  in  their  grana- 
ries, and  wine  in  their  cellars.  The  Spirituals  were 
very  numerous  in  France  and  elsewhere.  They 
wore  straight,  short,  sordid,  and  vile  garments, 
with  small  hoods,  and  laid  up  nothing  in  store, 
but  relied  wholly  upon  charity  for  a  subsistence. 
They  denied  the  right  of  the  popes  to  alter  the 
rule  of  their  founder,  which  they  regarded  as  the 
true  gospel  of  Christ,  and  dictated  by  God  him- 
self, and  therefore  not  subject  to  the  power  of  the 
pontiffs.  This  brought  upon  them  the  hot  dis- 
pleasure of  these  successors  of  St.  Peter,  who  nev- 
er could  permit  their  power  and  prerogatives  to  be 
touched  with  impunity. — From  this  time,  (A.  D. 
1318)  therefore,  not  only  in  France,  but  also  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany,  an  immense  number 
of  the  defenders  of  the  rule  of  St.  Francis,  Fratri- 
celli,  Beghards,  and  Spirituals,  were  cruelly  put 
to  death,  by  means  of  the  Inquisitors,  who  were 
required  to  seize  upon  them  wherever  they  could 
be  found. 

.  Another  violent  conte'st  arose  respecting  the  po- 
verty of  Christ  and  his  apostles.  The  Francis- 
cans as  a  body,  maintained  that  Christ  and  his 
apostles  possessed  nothing,  by  way  of  property  or 
dominion,  either  in  common  or  individually.  This 
the  Dominicans  denied,  and  were  supported  by 
the  decision  of  the  pope  ;  who  pronounced  it  to  be 
18 


206  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

a  heresy,  pestiferous,  erroneous,  damnable,  blas- 
phemous, and  opposed  to  the  catholic  feith  ;  and 
ordered  that  all  who  professed  it,  should  be  ac- 
counted heretics,  contumacious,  and  rebels  against 
the  church.  The  consequence  of  this  edict  was, 
that  many  were  seized  and  committed  to  the  flames, 
by  their  enemies,  the  Dominican  Inquisitors. 

VIII.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century,  there 
arose  at  Antwerp  the  sect  of  the  Cellites,  called 
also  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  Alexius,  because 
they  had  St.  Alexius  for  their  patron  saint.  They 
made  it  their  business  to  wait  on  the  sick  and  the 
dying,  who  were  numerous  at  that  time  from  the 
prevalence  of  the  plague,  and  attended  to  the  burial 
of  such  as  died.  On  account  of  their  singing  fune- 
ral dirges  on  such  occasions,  they  were  also  called 
Lollards.  The  example  of  these  good  people  was 
followed  by  many  others ;  and  in  a  short  time, 
over  the  greater  part  of  Germany  and  the  Nether- 
lands, societies  were  formed  of  such  Lollards,  of 
both  sexes,  who  were  supported  partly  by  their 
own  labour,  and  partly  by  the  munificence  of  those 
whom  they  served,  and  of  other  pious  persons. 
The  term  Lollard,  however,  seems  to  have  been 
applied  as  a  reproachful  epithet  to  many  different 
sects,  as  denoting  one  who  concealed  great  vices 
and  pernicious  sentiments,  under  the  mask  of  great 
piety.  But  there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  among 
authors,  in  regard  to  this  matter. 

IX.  The  rehgion  and  theology  of  this  age  must 
be  acknowledged  to  be  very  degenerate  and  cor-' 
rupt,  both  as  taught  in  the  schools,  and  as  exhibi- 
ted for  governing  the  conduct  and  lives  of  men. 
In  explaining  and  inculcating  the  doctrines  of  re- 
ligion, most  of  the  Greeks  and  Latins  followed 
the  principles  of  the  Peripatetic  philosophy.     In 


FOURTEENTH    CEISTURY.  207 

this  class,  John  Duns  Scotus,  an  Englishman,  was 
among  the  most  distinguished.  There  were  some, 
indeed,  who  condemned  this  method  of  philoso- 
phizing on  religious  subjects,  and  who  endeavoured 
to  draw  the  attention  of  students  in  theology  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  Hence  there  were  fierce  dis- 
putes every  where,  but  especially  in  the  most  dis- 
tinguished universities,  as  those  of  Paris  and  Ox- 
ford, between  the  biblical  and  philosophical  theo- 
logians. Moreover  the  scholastic  doctors,  or  phi- 
losophical divines,  had  great  controversies  among 
themselves,  on  various  subjects.  Abundant  matter 
for  these  contests  was  afforded  by  John  Duns 
Scotus,  who,  being  of  the  Franciscan  order,  and 
envious  of  the  Dominicans,  attacked  certain  doc- 
trines of  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  maintained  that 
they  were  untrue.  The  Dominicans  united  to 
defend  the  brother  of  their  order,  who  was  the 
oracle  of  the  schools ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Franciscans  gathered  around  Scotus,  as  a  doctor 
that  descended  from  heaven.  Thus  the  two  most 
powerful  orders,  the  Dominicans  and  the  Francis- 
cans, were  again  pitted  against  each  other ;  and 
the  famous  sects  of  the  Scotists  and  Thomists, 
were  produced,  which  still  divide  the  schools  of 
the  Latins.  These  schools  disagree  respecting 
the  nature  of  divine  co-operation,  the  measure  of 
divine  grace  necessary  to  man's  salvation,  the 
unity  of  form  in  man  or  personal  identity,  and 
many  other  subjects.  But  nothing  procured  Sco- 
tus greater  glory,  than  his  defence  and  demon- 
stration in  opposition  to  the  Dominicans,  of  what 
is  called  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary. 

X.  Ceremonies  were  still  increased.     Innocent 
V.  commanded  Christians  to  observe  festal  days, 


208  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

in  memory  of  the  spear  that  pierced  the  Saviour's 
side,  of  the  nails  that  fastened  him  to  the  cross, 
and  of  the  crown  of  thorns,  which  he  wore  at  his 
death.  John  XXII.  ordered  Christians  to  annex 
to  their  prayers  the  words  with  which  the  angel 
Gabriel  saluted  the  Virgin  Mary,  Ave  Maria,  &;c. 
Benedict  XII.  sanctioned  the  senseless  fable  of  the 
Franciscans,  respecting  the  impression  of  the 
wounds  of  Christ  upon  their  founder,  by  ordaining 
a  festival  to  commemorate  that  event, 

XI,  In  the  Latin  church,  the  Waldenses,  the 
Cathari,  the  Apostoli,  the  Beghards,  the  Beguins, 
the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  free  spirit,  the 
Lollards,  &c.,  gave  work  enough  to  the  officers 
of  the  holy  Inquisition.  About  the  middle  of  the 
century,  a  new  sect  of  Flagellants  rose  up  in  Ger- 
many, and  roaming  through  various  countries, 
created  excitement  among  the  people.  They 
were  of  every  order,  sex,  and  age,  and  taught  that 
flagellation  v/as  of  equal  efficacy  with  baptism  and 
the  other  sacraments,  and  that  by  it  might  be  ob- 
tained from  God  the  forgiveness  of  all  sins,  with- 
out the  merits  of  Christ,  &c.  Quite  different  from 
them  was  the  sect  of  the  Daficers,  which  origin- 
ated at  Aix  la  Chapelle  in  the  year  137.S,  and 
thence  spread  through  the  district  of  Liege,  Hai- 
nault,  and  other  Belgic  provinces.  Persons  of 
both  sexes,  publicly  and  in  private  houses,  sud- 
denly broke  into  a  dance,  and  holding  each  other 
by  the  hand,  danced  with  great  violence  till  they 
fell  down  nearly  exhausted.  Amidst  those  violent 
movements,  they  said  they  were  favoured  with 
wonderful  visions.  They  also  wandered  about 
like  the  Flagellants,  and  lived  by  begging.  They 
esteemed  the  public  worship  of  the  church  and  of 
whe  priesthood,  of  little  value,  and  held  secret  as- 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  209 

semblies.  The  Knights  Templars  were  accused 
of  enormous  crimes;  and,  in  the  year  1311,  the 
whole  order  was  suppressed  by  the  council  of 
Vienne.  Their  very  ample  possessions  were 
transferred  in  part  to  other  orders,  especially  to  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  and  in  part  were  confiscated 
by  the  reigning  sovereigns. 


CENTURY  XV 

1.  Spread  of  popery,  and  depression  of  the  Greek  church.— 
2.  Revival  of  learning  in  Western  Europe. — 3.  Corruption 
of  the  popish  church. — 4.  Western  schism,  and  Council  of 

,  Constance. — 5.  Jolin  Huss  and  Jerome  burnt. — 6.  Council 
of  Bale. — 7.  Religious  fraternities.— 8.  Lollards,  Waldenses. 
Calixtines,  and  Taborites. — 9.  Fanatical  sects. 

I.  Near  the  close  of  this  century,  Ferdinand,  king 
of  Spain,  by  the  conquest  of  Grenada,  (A.  D. 
1492,)  wholly  subverted  the  dominion  of  the 
Moors  or  Saracens  in  Spain.  Efforts  were  made, 
both  by  persuasions  and  civil  penalties,  to  induce 
them  to  embrace  Christianity  ;  but  with  little  suc- 
cess. About  this  time,  vast  multitudes  of  Jews 
were  ordered  into  banishment  by  Ferdinand,  un- 
less they  would  embrace  Christianity ;  which 
many  of  them  did  in  an  insincere  and  hypocritical 
manner.  And  to  the  present  day,  many  Jews 
exist  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  who  pretend  to  be 
Christians.  It  was  near  the  close  of  this  century 
that  the  Portuguese  navigators  doubled  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  penetrated  to  India  and  Ethi- 
opia; and  Christopher  Columbus,  in  the  year 
18* 


210  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

1492,  discovered  a  new  world  It  was  thought 
incumbent  to  send  Christianity  to  these  newly  dis- 
covered countries,  which  was  first  attempted  by 
the  Portuguese,  among  the  Africans  of  the  king- 
dom of  Congo ;  whose  king  with  all  his  subjects, 
at  once  received  the  Romish  religion.  Pope  Al- 
exander VI.  divided  America  between  the  Span- 
iards and  Portuguese,  and  strongly  enjoined  it 
upon  both  nations,  not  to  suffer  the  inhabitants  of 
the  islands  and  the  continent  to  continue  longer 
ignorant  of  the  true  religion.  Many  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans and  Dominicans  were  sent  to  those  coun- 
tries to  convert  the  natives  to  Christ. 

Christianity  in  the  East,  was  almost  wholly 
obliterated  by  the  Turks  and  Tartars,  who  em- 
braced the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  spread  their 
conquests  and  their  religion  in  almost  every  direc- 
tion. The  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks,  in  the  year  1453,  brought  the  glory  of  the 
Greek  church  to  an  end ;  nor  had  the  Christians 
any  protection  against  the  daily  oppression  and 
wrongs  of  the  victors,  or  any  means  of  resisting 
the  torrent  of  ignorance  and  barbarism  that  rushed 
in  upon  them. 

II.  These  events  were  almost  fatal  to  learning 
in  the  east,  but  tended  to  promote  it  in  the  west. 
After  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  great  numbers  of  learned  Greeks  migrated 
into  the  different  countries  of  Europe,  and  particu- 
larly into  Italy  ;  where  they  were  encouraged, 
and  became  the  instructors  of  youth,  and  transla- 
tors of  ancient  authors,  and  thereby  greatly  pro- 
moted the  cause  of  literature  in  the  west.  Some 
of  the  popes  distinguished  themselves  as  the  patrons 
of  learning ;  also  many  of  the  kings  and  princes, 
by  thel"  protection  and  extraordinary  munificence, 


FIFTEENTH    CEIVTUBY.  211 

aided  literary  men,  established  universities,  col- 
lected libraries,  and  thus  advanced  the  cause  of 
science.  Among  these  the  family  of  the  Medici 
in  Italy,  and  Alphonsus  VI.  king  of  Naples,  ac- 
quired permanent  fame  by  their  liberality  and 
their  attachment  to  learning.  About  the 'year 
1440,  the  art  of  printing  was  discovered,  which 
also  contributed  greatly  to  the  cause  of  learning 
by  rendering  books  cheap  and  common.  The 
place  where  this  art  was  discovered,  as  well  as 
the  person  by  whom,  are  in  dispute.  Three 
places  claim  the  honour,  Haerlem,  Mentz,  and 
Strasburg.  John  Guttemberg  was  probably  the 
inventor  of  movable  types,  who  entered  into 
partnership  with  John  Faust,  at  Mentz,  though  it 
is  probable  that  printing  with  carved  blocks  had 
been  practised  before.  The  Platonic  philosophy 
was  again  revived  in  this  century,  and  came  into 
competition  with  the  Aristotelian,  which  had  long 
borne  sway  in  the  schools,  ^n  France  and  Ger- 
many, the  contests  between  the  Realists  and 
Nominalists  were  fiercely  maintained ;  and  some- 
times not  only  by  arguments,  but  by  penal  laws, 
and  the  force  of  arms.  There  was  scarcely  a 
university  that  was  not  disturbed  by  this  war. 

III.  The  deplorable  corruption  of  the  dominant 
church  in  this  age,  in  all  its  parts  and  members, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  is  acknowledged 
on  all  hands.  Many  of  the  popes  were  distin- 
guished for  nothing  more  than  for  their  various 
crimes  and  wickedness.  Ambition,  avarice,  fraud, 
and  sensuality,  were  CQmmonly  practised  among 
them.  John  XXIII.  was  removed  from  the  pon- 
tificate by  the  council  of  Constance,  under  the 
charge  of  various  crimes,  among  which  were  the 
following  : — simony,    extortion,   poisoning,  adul- 


212  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

tery,  incest,  the  sale  of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  and 
perjury.  Sixtus  IV.  had  sixteen  illegitimate  child- 
ren, whom  he  took  special  care  to  provide  for  and 
enrich.  But  of  all  the  popes  of  this  age,  perhaps 
Roderic  Borgia,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Alex- 
ander VI.,  excelled  in  wickedness.  He  has  been 
called  the  Catiline  of  the  popes  ;  and  the  villa- 
nies,  crimes,  and  enormities  recorded  of  him,  are 
so  many  and  so  great,  that  it  must  be  certain  that 
he  was  destitute,  not  only  of  all  religion,  but  also 
of  decency  and  shame.  The  most  of  the  monastic 
orders  were  filled  with  ignorant,  lazy,  dishonest, 
and  debauched  people,  as  evinced  by  numerous 
documents,  and  the  testimony  of  all  the  best  his- 
torians. The  mendicant  monks,  particularly  the 
Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  gave  as  great  of- 
fence, by  their  arrogance,  their  quarrelsome  tem- 
per, their  invasion  of  the  rights  of  others,  their 
superstition,  and  their  vain  disputes  about  religion, 
as  the  opulent  monks  did  by  their  luxury,  their 
laziness,  their  hatred  of  learning  and  science,  and 
their  vices. 

The  religion  of  this  age  consisted  chiefly  in 
vain  and  senseless  ceremonies,  and  few  thought 
of  any  thing  further.  Yet  doubtless  there  were  a 
^QW  who  were  truly  pious,  although  shrouded  in 
the  mists  of  superstition  and  human  inventions. 
Such  was  Thomas  a  Kempis,  whose  book  on  the 
Imitation  of  Christ,  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages,  and  is  read  at  the  present  day. 
Theology  took  its  form  pretty  much  from  the  dif- 
ferent schools  in  which  it  was  taught ;  and  Plato 
and  Aristotle  had  nearly  as  much  authority  as  the 
word  of  God.  Yet  there  were  some  who  con- 
demned the  scholastic  subtilty,  and  endless  wrang- 
ling of  the  dialecticians,  as  being  destructive  to 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  213 

religion  and  piety.  Such  was  John  Gerson,  one 
of  the  greatest  men  of  his  age.  A  dispute  arose 
in  1462,  upon  this  question, — whether  the  blood 
of  Christ  was  distinct  from  his  divine  nature  or 
not ;  and  of  course,  whether  it  ought  to  receive 
divine  worship  or  not.  The  Franciscans  espoused 
the  affirmative,  and  the  Dominicans  the  negative. 
The  pope,  not  being  able  to  suppress  the  con- 
troversy, imposed  silence  on  both  the  contending 
parties,  declaring  that  both  opinions  might  be 
tolerated,  until  he  should  have  leisure  and  oppor- 
tunity to  examine  which  was  most  correct. 

IV.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century,  there 
were  two  popes — one  at  Romie,  and  the  other  at 
Avignon — each  claiming  to  be  the  regular  de- 
scendant of  St.  Peter.  And  in  the  year  1409,  a 
third  was  created  by  a  council  held  at  Pisa.  Thus 
was  the  church  divided  between  three  pontiffs, 
who  fiercely  assailed  each  other  with  reciprocal 
excommunications,  reproaches,  and  maledictions. 
This  schism  of  the  West,  which  had  existed 
for  half  a  century,  and  been  the  cause  of  so 
many  evils,  was  finally  healed  by  the  council  of 
Constance,  which  met,  A.  D.  1414,  and  continued 
its  sessions  for  three  years  and  a  half.  This 
council,  which  claimed  to  be  general,  and  to 
represent  the  whole  church,  established,  by  seve- 
ral decrees,  the  supreme  authority  of  a  general 
council  over  the  whole  church,  and  over  the  pope ; 
a  doctrine  very  unwelcome  to  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
and  strongly  opposed  by  them.  These  decrees  I 
translate  from  the  Latin  as  follows  : — "  This  sa- 
cred synod  of  Constance,  constituting  a  general 
council,  for  the  extirpation  of  this  schism,  and  the 
union  and  reformation  of  the  church  of  God  in  its 


814  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

head  and  in  its  members,  ordains,  defines,  decrees, 
and  declares,  as  follows: — 

"  And  first  it  declares,  That  this  synod,  law- 
fially  assembled  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  constituting  a 
general  council,  and  representing  the  catholic 
church,  has  its  power  immediately  from  Christ, 
to  which  every  one,  of  whatever  grade  or  dignity, 
even  if  he  be  the  pope,  is  bound  to  be  obedient  in 
those  things  that  pertain  to  faith,  the  extirpation 
of  the  above  mentioned  schism,  and  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  catholic  church  in  its  head  and  in  its 
members. 

"  It  declares  likewise,  That  whoever  he  be,  of 
whatever  condition,  grade,  dignity,  even  if  he  be 
pope,  who  shall  contemptuously  refuse  obedience 
to  the  commands,  statutes,  or  ordinances,  or  pre- 
cepts of  this  sacred  synod,  and  of  any  other  gene- 
ral council,  lawfully  called,  in  regard  to  the  fore- 
named  things,  done,  or  to  be  done,  or  pertaining 
to  them,  unless  he  repent,  shall  be  subjected  to 
condign  penance,  and  shall  be  duly  punished, 
even  by  a  recurrence  to  the  civil  arm,  if  need  so 
require." 

V.  It  was  by  this  council  of  Constance  that 
John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  were  con- 
demned as  heretics,  and  burnt.  They  were 
among  the  morning  stars  of  the  Reformation. 
The  following  account  is  given  of  Huss.  "  His 
doctrines  and  books  being  condemned,  he  was 
required  to  recant;  but  he  magnanimously  re- 
fused: and,  on  the  7th  of  July,  1415,  the  coun- 
cil ordered  that  he  should  be  degraded  from  the 
priesthood,  his  books  publicly  burnt,  and  himself 
delivered  to  the  secular  power.  That  sentence  he 
heard  without  emotion.     He  immediately  prayed 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  215 

for  the  pardon  of  his  enemies.  The  bishops  ap- 
pointed by  the  council  stripped  him  of  his  priestly- 
garments,  and  put  a  mitre  of  paper  on  his  head, 
on  which  devils  were  painted,  with  this  inscrip- 
tion, A  Ri7igleader  of  Heretics.  The  bishops 
delivered  him  to  the  emperor,  and  he  delivered 
him  to  the  duke  of  Bavaria.  His  books  were 
burnt  at  the  gate  of  the  church,  and  he  was  led 
to  the  siiburbs,  to  be  burnt  alive.  Prior  to  his 
execution,  he  made  a  solemn,  public  appeal  to 
God,  from  the  judgment  of  the  pope  and  council, 
which  was  fervent  and  energetic.  He  was  then 
surrounded  with  fagots,  his  mind  all  the  while 
composed  and  happy.  The  flames  were  then  ap- 
plied to  the  fagots ;  when  the  martyr  sang  a 
hymn,  with  so  loud  and  cheerful  a  voice,  that  he 
was  distinctly  heard  through  all  the  noise  of  the 
combustibles  and  of  the  multitude.  At  length,  he 
uttered,  '  Jesus  Christ,  thou  Son  of  the  living 
God,  have  mercy  on  me  !'  and  he  was  consumed  ; 
after  which,  his  ashes  were  carefully  collected 
and  thrown  into  the  Rhine.  Huss  was  a  true 
ecclesiastic,  and  a  real  Christian  ; — gentle  and 
condescending  to  the  opinions  of  others,  this  ami- 
able pattern  of  virtue  was  strict  only  in  his  prin- 
ciples. His  great  contest  was  with  vice.  His 
piety  was  calm,  rational,  and  manly;  his  forti- 
tude  was  undaunted.  '  From  his  infancy,'  said 
the  university  of  Prague,  '  he  was  of  such  excel- 
lent morals,  that  during  his  stay  here,  we  may 
venture  to  challenge  any  one  to  produce  a  single 
fault  against  him.'  His  writings  were  simple, 
pious,  affectionate,  and  intelligent.  Luther  said 
he  was  the  most  rational  expounder  of  Scripture 
he  ever  met  with." 

A  distinct  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  opinions 


216  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  Huss  by  stating,  that  they  agreed,  in  almost 
every  particular,  with  those  of  WicklifTe.  Indeed 
it  was  from  the  Bible  and  the  writings  of  WicklifTe 
that  Huss  formed  his  creed.  His  friend,  Jerome 
of  Prague,  adopted  the  same  opinions,  and  was 
devoted  to  the  same  studies.  Jerome  was  inferior 
to  Huss  in  age,  but  equal  to  him  in  piety,  and  his 
superior  in  learning,  taste,  and  eloquence.  He  was 
brought  before  the  council  of  Constance ;  made 
a  speech  of  wonderful  power  and  eloquence  in 
his  own  defence  ;  but  was  condemned  and  burnt 
in  a  few  weeks  after  the  martyrdom  of  his  friend 
Huss. 

This  council  also  condemned  John  WicklifTe, 
long  since  dead ;  and  ordered  all  his  books  to  be 
destroyed  and  his  bones  to  be  burnt.  The  same 
council  passed  the  famous  decree,  that  the  sacred 
supper  should  be  administered  to  the  laity,  in  the 
element  of  bread  only,  forbidding  the  communion 
in  both  kinds.  But  it  finally  broke  up  without 
attempting  a  reformation  of  the  church  in  its  head 
and  in  its  members,  as  the  language  of  the  time 
then  was.  This  important  work,  acknowledged 
on  all  hands  to  be  so  necessary,  was  deferred  to  a 
council  to  be  called  at  the  end  of  five  years. 

VI.  The  assembling  of  this  council  was  delay- 
ed more  than  twice  five  years  ;  but  at  length,  on 
the  23d  of  July,  1431,  it  commenced  at  Basil,  or 
Bale,  under  the  presidency  of  cardinal  Julian,  as 
representative  of  the  pontiff.  But  pope  Eugene 
IV.  soon  began  to  apprehend,  from  the  materials 
and  movements  of  this  council,  that  they  really 
intended  in  good  earnest,  to  do  what  they  had  been 
directed  to  do  ;  and  therefore  made  two  attempts 
to  dissolve  it.  This  the  fathers  most  firmly  resist- 
ed ;  and  they  showed  by  the  decrees  of  the  coun- 


FIFTEENTH    CENTUEY.  217 

cil  of  Constance,  and  by  other  arguments,  that 
the  council  was  superior  in  authority  to  a  pontiff. 
The  pope  therefore  yielded  for  the  present,  and 
gave  his  sanction  to  the  proceedings  of  the  council. 
After  the  council  had  continued  its  sessions  for  sev- 
eral years,  and  had  made  some  progress  in  their 
reforming  system,  and  were  about  to  proceed  to 
other  things  very  ungrateful  to  the  pontiff,  Eugene 
determined,  that  this  audacious  and  troublesome 
council,  must  either  be  removed  to  Italy,  to  be  more 
under  his  control ;  or  must  be  checked  by  another 
council  in  opposition  to  it.  He,  by  his  legates,  de- 
cided that  the  council  should  be  held  in  Italy  ;  they 
continued  their  deliberations  at  Basil.  He  dissolved 
the  council,  and  appointed  another  at  Ferrara  ; 
which  met,  A.  D.  1438,  and  excommunicated  the 
fathers  assembled  at  Basil.  They,  on  the  Other 
hand,  provoked  by  these  and  other  acts  of  Eugene, 
proceeded  on  the  25th  of  June,  1439,  to  deprive 
him  of  the  pontificate  ;  and  shortly  after  appointed 
another  in  his  room.  Thus  we  have  a  new  schism 
of  the  church,  even  worse  than  the  old — with  not 
only  two  contending  popes,  but  also  with  two  op- 
posing councils. 

VII.  The  Fratricelli,  Beghards,  &c.,  continued 
to  be  persecuted  by  the  Inquisitors,  and  many  of 
them  were  committed  to  the  flames ;  others  were 
imprisoned,  or  exiled.  A  religious  fraternity  was 
founded  in  this  century,  called  Brethren  and  Clerks 
of  the  common  life,  living  under  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  The  sect  was  divided  into  the  litera- 
ry brethren,  or  the  Clerks,  and  the  unlearned 
Brethren  ;  who  lived  in  different  houses,  but  in  the 
greatest  friendship.  The  Clerks  devoted  them- 
selves to  transcribing  books,  the  cultivation  of  po- 
lite learning,  and  the  instruction  of  youth  ;  and 
19 


218  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

erected  schools  wherever  they  went.  The  Breth- 
ren laboured  with  their  hands,  and  pursued  various 
mechanic  trades.  Neither  were  under  the  restraint 
of  religious  vows  ;  but  they  ate  at  a  common  table, 
and  held  a  community  of  goods.  The  schools  of 
these  Clerks  of  the  common  life  n'ere  very  cele- 
brated in  this  century  ;  and  in  them  were  trained 
nearly  all  the  restorers  of  polite  learning  in  Ger- 
many and  Holland.  Among  these  was  the  great 
Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  The  writers  of  this  cen- 
tury constitute  a  host ;  but  there  are  none  of  them 
that  need  to  be  particularly  named. 

VIII.  The  followers  of  Wickliffe,  in  England, 
who  were  called  Lollards,  continued  to  testify 
against  the  decisions  of  the  pope  and  the  conduct 
of  the  clergy  ;  and  the  Waldenses,  though  oppress- 
ed and  persecuted  on  all  sides,  ceased  not  to  pro- 
claim aloud  from  their  obscure  valleys,  and  re- 
mote  hiding  places,  that  succour  must  be  afforded 
to  religion  and  piety,  now  almost  extinct.  But  in 
Bohemia,  after  the  death  of  Huss,  and  Jerome  of 
Prague,  religious  controversies  broke  out  in  fierce 
and  deadly  war.  The  friends  of  Huss,  being  per- 
secuted and  oppressed,  seized  upon  a  high  and 
rugged  mountain,  which  they  called  Tabor,  where 
they  first  lived  in  tents,  but  afterwards  fortified 
themselves,  and  built  a  regular  city.  Their  lead- 
er was  John  Ziska.  A  very  cruel  and  inhuman  war 
was  carried  on,  on  both  sides.  But  when  multi- 
tudes of  all  sorts  of  persons  had  joined  fheii 
standard,  there  arose  great  contention  among  them- 
selves ;  which  resulted  in  an  open  schism,  dividing 
them  into  two  principal  factions,  the  Calixtines,  and 
the  Taborites.  Of  these  the  Calixtines  were  much 
the  most  moderate.  All  they  required  was  sum- 
med up  in  these  four  things  : — "  1.  That  the  word 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  219 

Df  God  might  be  preached  in  its  purity  and  sim- 
plicity to  the  people  : — 2.  That  the  sacred  supper 
might  be  administered  in  both  kinds  : — 3.  That 
the  clergy  might  be  recalled  from  the  pursuit  of 
wealth  and  power,  to  a  life  and  conduct  becoming 
the  successors  of  the  apostles  : — 4.  That  the  great- 
er or  mortal  sins  might  be  duly  punished."  The 
Taborites,  on  the  other  hand,  extended  their  de- 
mands much  further,  and  wished  to  overturn  eve- 
ry thing  ;  and  to  establish  an  entirely  new  church, 
and  commonwealth,  in  which  Christ  himself  should 
reign,  and  every  thing  be  conducted  according  to 
divine  dictation.  They  imbibed  the  most  ferocious 
sentiments,  and  breathed  nothing  but  war  and 
blood  against  their  enemies.  Their  sentiments 
are  expressed  in  the  following  language. 

"  All  the  opposers  of  Christ's  law,  ought  to  per- 
ish with  the  seven  last  plagues,  to  inflict  which  the 
faithful  are  to  be  called  forth.  In  this  time  of  ven- 
geance, Christ  is  not  to  be  imitated  in  his  mildness 
and  pity  towards  those  sinners,  but  in  his  zeal, 
and  fury,  and  just  retribution.  In  this  time  of 
vengeance,  every  believer,  even  a  presbyter,  how- 
ever spiritual,  is  accursed,  if  he  withhold  his  ma- 
terial sword  from  the  blood  of  the  adversaries -of 
Christ's  law  ;  for  he  ought  to  wash  and  sanctify 
his  hands  in  their  blood."  They  afterwards,  how- 
ever, reformed  and  corrected  their  society  ;  and 
from  them  descended  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  who 
in  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  entered  into  alliance 
with  Luther  and  his  associates,  and  whose  descend- 
ants still  exist  in  Poland  and  elsewhere,  under  the 
name  of  Moravians. 

IX.  Several  fanatical  sects  arose,  or  revived 
during  this  century,  and  gave  work  to  the  vigilant 
Inquisitors,  which  they  were  not  slow  to  perform. 


220  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

The  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  free  Spirit  con- 
linued  to  wander  over  the  countries  of  Europe,  and 
many  of  them  were  put  to  death. 

Another  sect  sprung  up  in  the  Netherlands,  called 
the  Men  of  Understanding,  Although  in  some 
things  they  seem  to  have  had  very  correct  views, 
and  held  important  truths,  yet  with  these  they 
mingled  egregious  error.  They  pretended  to  be 
honoured  with  celestial  visions — denied  that  *any 
one  could  correctly  understand  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, without  extraordinary  divine  illumination, 
and  declared  the  approach  of  a  new  revelation,  bet- 
ter and  more  perfect  than  the  Christian.  They 
said  that  the  resurrection  was  already  accomplish- 
ed in  the  person  of  Jesus,  and  no  other  was  to  be 
expected  ;  that  the  inward  man  was  not  defiled  by 
the  outward  actions,  whatever  they  were  ;  that  the 
pains  of  hell  were  to  have  an  end  ;  and  not  only 
all  mankind,  but  even  the  devils  themselves,  were 
to  return  to  God,  and  be  made  partakers  of  eter- 
nal felicity. 

"  In  Germany,  and  particularly  in  Thuringia, 
and  Lower  Saxony,  the  Flagellants  were  still 
troublesome  ;  but  they  were  very  different  from 
those  earlier  Flagellants,  who  travelled  in  regular 
bands  from  province  to  province.  These  new 
Flagellants  rejected  almost  all  practical  religion, 
and  the  external  worship  of  God,  together  with  the 
sacraments  ;  and  founded  all  their  hopes  of  salva- 
tion on  faith  and  flagellation."  Their  leader,  Con- 
rad Schmidt,  was  burnt  by  the  Inquisition,  with 
many  others,  in  the  year  1414. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  221 


CENTURY  XVI. 

CHAPTER  I. 

CAUSES    LEADING    TO    THE    REFORMATION. 

1.  Corrupt  state  of  the  church. — 2.  Profligate  lives  of  the  popea 
— 3.  Profligacy  of  the  clergy. — 4.  Monks. — 5.  InquiaitiDn, 
and  ignorance  of  spiritual  teachers. — 6.  Indulgences — 7.  Re- 
vival of  learning. — 8.  Witnesses  for  the  truth. 

We  now  enter  upon  that  important  and  interesting 
portion  of  Church  History  called  the  Reformation. 
No  event,  since  the  first  promulgation  of  Christ- 
ianity by  Christ  and  the  apostles,  has  been  of  great- 
er importance  to  the  world,  than  the  Reformation 
from  popery,  effected  by  Luther  and  his  coadjutors. 
We  shall  first  notice  the  state  of  the  church  that 
led  to  this  result,  made  such  a  change  desirable, 
and  prepared  the  minds  of  people  for  it. 

J.  The  degenerate  and  corrupt  state  of  the  whole 
church  was  such  as  to  create  general  disgust  and 
complaint.  Not  only  individuals,  but  the  most 
powerful  sovereigns,  and  even  whole  nations  had 
uttered  their  complaints  against  the  haughty  domi- 
nation of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  the  frauds,  the  vio- 
lence, the  avarice,  and  injustice  of  the  court  of 
Rome  ;  the  insolence,  the  tyranny,  and  the  extor- 
tion of  the  papal  legates  ;  the  crimes,  the  ignorance, 
and  the  extreme  profligacy  of  the  priests  of  all  or- 
ders, and  of  the  monks ;  and  finally  the  un- 
19* 


222  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

righteous  severity,  and  the  partiality  of  the  Roman 
laws  ;  and  desires  were  now  publicly  expressed,  as 
had  been  the  case  for  generations  past,  that  there 
might  be  a  reformation  of  the  church,  in  its  head 
and  in  its  members,  and  that  the  subject  might  be 
taken  up  in  some  general  council. 

II.  But  to  be  more  particular,  the  abominably 
wicked  and  profligate  conduct  of  the  popes  them- 
selves, gave  very  great  and  general  offence. — 
While  they  claimed  to  be  the  sole  head  of  the 
church  on  earth,  and  the  vicars  of  Christ ;  many 
of  them  were  most  profane,  wicked,  and  sottish  in 
their  lives.  Such  being  the  character  of  the  popes 
themselves,  every  attempt  at  a  reformation  of  the 
church,  was  evaded  or  resisted. 

III.  "  The  subordinate  rulers  and  teachers  of 
the  church,  eagerly  followed  the  example  of  their 
head  and  leader.  Most  of  the  bishops,  with  the 
canons  their  associates,  led  luxurious  and  jovial 
lives,  in  the  daily  commission  of  sins,  and  squan* 
dered  in  the  gratification  of  their  lusts,  those  funds, 
which  the  preceding  generations  had  consecrated 
to  God,  and  to  the  relief  of  the  poor.  Most  of 
them  also  treated  the  people  subject  to  their  con- 
trol, much  more  rigorously  and  harshly,  than  civil 
magistrates  and  princes  treated  their  dependents. 
The  greater  part  of  the  priests,  on  account  of 
their  indolence,  their  unchastity,  their  avarice, 
their  love  of  pleasure,  their  ignorance,  and  their 
levity,  were  regarded  with  utter  contempt  not 
only  by  the  wise  and  good,  but  likewise  by  the 
common  people.  For,  as  sacred  offices  were  now 
every  where  bought  and  sold,  it  was  difficult  for 
honest  and  pious  men  to  get  possession  of  any  good 
living  in  the  church,  but  very  easy  for  the  vicious 
and  unprincipled." 


sixtee:vth  century.  S23 

IV.  "The  immense  swarm  of  monks  produced 
every  where  great  grievances  and  complaints. — 
Yet  this  ase,  which  stood  intermediate  between 
light  and  darltness,  would  patiently  have  borne  with 
this  indolent  throng,  if  they  had  exhibited  some 
show  of  piety  and  decorum.  .  But  the  Benedic- 
tines, and  the  other  orders  which  were  allowed  to 
possess  lands  and  fixed  revenues,  abused  their 
■wrealth,  and  rushed  headlong  into  every  species  of 
vice,  regardless  altogether  of  the  rules  they  pro- 
fessed. The  Mendicant  orders,  on  the  contrary, 
and  especially  those  who  professed  to  follow  the 
rules  of  Dominic  and  Francis,  by  their  rustic  im- 
pudence, their  ridiculous  superstition,  their  ignor- 
ance and  cruelty,  their  rude  and  brutish  conduct, 
alienated  the  minds  of  most  people  from  them." 
The  opposition  and  rivalry  that  existed  between 
the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  was  also  the 
means  of  bringing  to  light  and  exposing  more  fully 
the  vices  and  frauds  practised  by  both. 

V.  The  monstrous  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition, 
too,  over  which  the  Dominicans  every  where  pre- 
sided, and  by  which  multitudes  of  worthy  persons 
were  destroyed,  was  calculated  to  render  the 
people  dissatisfied,  and  desirous  of  a  change. 
Learning  began  now  to  be  diffused  and  culti- 
vated ;  and  many  were  disgusted  with  the  utter 
ignorance  of  many  who  pretended  to  be  teachers 
and  rulers  in  the  church,  and  especially  their  en- 
tire unacquaintance  with  the  Scriptures ;  which 
began  now,  by  means  of  printing,  and  the  revival 
of  learning,  to  be  more  known  and  read.  Many 
of  the  doctors  of  theology  of  those  times  had 
never  read  the  Bible.  Even  in  the  university  of 
Paris,  which  was  considered  as  the  mother  and 
queen  of  all  the  rest,  not  a  man  could  be  found, 


224  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

when  Luther  arose,  competent  to  dispute  with  him 
out  of  the  Scriptures.  Those  who  delivered  ser- 
mons, (which  many  of  the  clergy  were  not  able 
to  do,)  beguiled  the  ears  of  the  people  with  pre- 
tended miracles,  ridiculous  fables,  wretched  quib- 
bles, and  similar  trash,  thrown  together  without 
judgment.  They  vociferated  by  the  hour  on  the 
authority  of  holy  mother  church, — the  influence 
of  the  saints  with  God,  the  dignity,  kindness,  and 
glory  of  the  Virgin  Mary, — the  efficacy  of  relics, 
— the  enriching  of  churches  and  monasteries, — 
the  necessity  of  what  they  called  good  works  in 
order  to  salvation, — the  intolerable  flames  of  pur- 
gatory,— and  the  utility  of  indulgences. 

VI.  But  nothing  contributed  more  directly  to 
the  Reformation  than  the  extravagant  sale  and 
abuse  of  indulgences.  "  Indulgences,  in  the 
Romish  church,  are  a  remission  of  the  punish- 
ment due  to  sin,  granted  by  the  church,  and  sup- 
posed to  save  the  sinner  from  purgatory.  Ac- 
cording to  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  church,  all 
the  good  works  of  the  saints,  over  and  above 
those  that  were  necessary  for  their  own  justifica- 
tion, are  deposited,  together  with  the  infinite 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  an  inexhaustible  trea- 
sury. The  keys  of  this  were  committed  to  St. 
Peter,  and  to  his  successors,  the  popes,  who  may 
open  it  at  pleasure ;  and,  by  transferring  a  por- 
tion of  this  superabundant  merit  to  any  particular 
person  for  a  sum  of  money,  may  convey  to  him 
either  the  pardon  of  his  own  sins,  or  a  release  of 
any  one  for  whom  he  is  interested,  from  the  pains 
of  purgatory.  Such  indulgences  were  first  in- 
vented in  the  eleventh  century,  by  Urban  II.,  as 
a  recompense  to  those  who  went  in  person  upon 
the  glorious  enterprise  of  conquering  the  Holy 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  225 

Land.  They  were  afterwards  granted  to  any  one 
who  hired  a  soldier  for  that  purpose ;  and,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  were  bestowed  on  such  as  gave  mo- 
ney for  accomplishing  any  pious  work  enjoined 
by  the  pope.  The  power  of  granting  indulgences 
has  been  greatly  abused  in  the  church  of  Rome. 
Pope  Leo  X.,  in  order  to  carry  on  the  magnificent 
structure  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  published  indul- 
gences, and  a  plenary  permission  to  all  such  as 
should  contribute  money  towards  it.  Finding  the 
project  take,  he  granted  to  Albert,  elector  of 
Mentz,  and  archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  the  benefit 
of  the  indulgences  of  Saxony,  and  the  neighbour- 
ing parts,  and  farmed  out  those  of  other  countries 
to  the  highest  bidders ;  who,  to  make  the  best  of 
their  bargain,  procured  the  ablest  preachers  to 
cry  up  the  value  of  the  ware.  The  form  of  these 
indulgences  was  as  follows  : — "  May  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  have  mercy  upon  thee,  and  absolve 
thee  by  the  merits  of  his  most  holy  passion.  And 
I,  by  his  authority,  that  of  his  blessed  apostles, 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  of  the  most  holy  pope, 
granted  and  committed  to  me  in  these  parts,  do 
absolve  thee,  first  from  all  ecclesiastical  censures, 
in  whatever  manner  they  have  been  incurred ; 
then  from  all  thy  sins,  transgressions,  and  ex- 
cesses, how  enormous  soever  they  may  be  ;  even 
from  such  as  are  reserved  for  the  cognizance  of 
the  holy  see,  and  as  far  as  the  keys  of  the  holy 
church  extend.  I  remit  to  you  all  punishment 
which  you  deserve  in  purgatory  on  their  account  ; 
and  I  restore  you  to  the  holy  sacraments  of  the 
church,  to  the  union  of  the  faithful,  and  to  the 
innocence  and  purity  which  you  possessed  at 
baptism ;  so  that  when  you  die,  the  gates  of  pun- 
ishment shall  be  shut,  and  the  gates  of  the  para- 


220  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

dise  of  delights  shall  be  opened  :  and  if  you  shal 
not  die  at  present,  this  grace  shall  remain  in  full 
force  when  you  are  at  the  point  of  death.  In 
the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost." 

The  terms  in  which  the  retailers  of  indulgences 
described  their  benefits,  and  the  necessity  of  pur- 
chasing them,  were  so  extravagant,  that  they  ap- 
pear almost  incredible.  If  any  man,  said  they, 
purchase  letters  of  indulgence,  his  soul  may  rest 
secure  with  respect  to  its  salvation.  The  souls 
confined  in  purgatory,  for  whose  redemption  in- 
dulgences are  purcha.«ed,  as  soon  as  the  money 
tinkles  in  the  chest,  instantly  escape  from  that 
place  of  torment,  and  ascend  into  heaven.  The 
efficacy  of  indulgences  is  so  great,  that  the  most 
heinous  sins  will  be  remitted  and  expiated  by 
them,  and  the  person  be  freed  both  from  punish- 
ment and  guilt.  This,  it  was  said,  is  the  un- 
speakable gift  of  God,  in  order  to  reconcile  man 
to  himself;  and  the  cross  erected  by  the  preach- 
ers of  indulgences  is  equally  efficacious  with  the 
cross  of  Christ  itself.  "  Lo,"  said  they,  "  the 
heavens  are  open ;  if  you  enter  not  now,  when 
will  you  enter  ?  For  twelve  pence,  you  may  re- 
deem the  soul  of  your  father  out  of  purgatory : 
and  are  you  so  ungrateful  that  you  will  not  rescue 
the  soul  of  your  parent  from  torment?  If  you 
had  but  one  coat,  you  ought  to  strip  yourself  in- 
stantly, and  sell  it,  in  order  to  purchase  such  a 
benefit,"  &c.  It  was  this  great  abuse  that  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  the  reformation  of  religion 
in  Germany,  when  Martin  Luther  began  first  to 
declaim  against  the  preachers  of  indulgences, 
and  afterwards  against  indulgences  themselves. 

VII.    Another   thing   that   contributed    to   the 


SIXTKENTII    CENTURY.  227 

Reformation  was  the  revival  of  learning,  by 
means  of  the  "emigration  of  learned  Greeks  to  the 
West,  the  translation  of  ancient  authors,  and  the 
art  of  printing.  This  brought  the  ignorance  of 
the  priests  and  monks  into  contempt,  and  de- 
stroyed in  a  great  degree  their  influence,  And 
many  learned  men  of  that  day,  as  the  great  Eras- 
mus of  Rotterdam,  turned  the  keen  edge  of  their 
satire  and  ridicule  against  the  ignorant  priests 
and  monks,  and  the  superstitions  of  the  church  ; 
which  had  no  small  influence  in  making  way  for 
the  Reformation.  It  was  even  said  that  Erasmus 
laid  the  eo^or  which  Luther  hatched. 

VIII.  Some  rays  of  true  light  had  also  shone 
out  upon  the  world  from  the  obscure  retreat  of  the 
Waldenses,  from  the  writings  and  preaching  of 
Wickliffe,  and  of  Huss,  and  Jerome  of  Prague, 
and  their  Bohemian  Brethren,  and  other  obscura 
sects,  among  whom  the  truth  was  still  held. 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE     REFORMATION. 


1.  Luther  opposes  indulgences. — 2.  Pope's  first  bull,  which 
Luiher  burns. — 3.  Joined  by  Melancthon. — 4.  Luther  ,  at 
Worms.  5.  Carolostadt. — 6.  Zwingle. — 7.  Dispute  among 
the  Reformers. — 8.  War  of  the  Peasants. — 9.  Diets  of  Spire 
— 10.  Anabaptists. — IL  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  pacifica- 
tion ratified  at  Augsburgh. — 12,  England. — 13.  Scotland. — 
14.  Ireland. — 15.  Netherlands. 

I.  All  these  circumstances  combining  their  influ- 
ence to  make  way  for  the  Reformation,  and  pre- 


228  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

paring  the  minds  of  the  people  for  such  an  event 
It  yet  commenced,  as  we  may  say,  by  accident, 
and  with(jut  any  ultimate  view  to  such  a  result. 
Martin  Luther,  an  Augustinian  friar,  and  professor 
of  theology  in  the  university  of  VVittemberg,  was 
a  man  of  superior  talents,  learning,  and  eloquence. 
By  the  reading  and  study  of  the  Scriptures,  his 
mind  was  enlightened  to  see  many  of  the  errors 
that  existed  in  the  Romish  church.  He  therefore 
took  great  otience  at  the  impudent  and  extravagant 
manner  in  which  John  Tetzel  preached  the  sale  of 
indulgences.  This  man,  without  modesty  or  shame, 
had  been  employed  by  the  archbishop  of  Mentz, 
and  Magdeburg,  on  account  of  his  impudence,  to 
preach  indulgences  to  the  Germans,  in  the  name 
of  the  Roman  pontiff,  Leo  X.  In  the  performance 
of  this  office,  he  extolled  the  merit  and  efficacy  of 
his  wares,  so  extravagantly,  as  impiously  to  de- 
tract from  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ.  Hence 
Luther,  moved  with  just  indignation,  publicly  ex- 
posed at  Wittemberg,  on  the  hrst  day  of  October, 
1517,  ninety-five  propositions  ;  in  which  he  chas- 
tised the  madness  of  these  indulgence-sellers  gen- 
erally, and  not  obscurely  censured  the  pope  him- 
self, lor  suffering  the  people  to  be  thus  diverted 
from  looking  to  Christ.  A  controversy  therefore 
immediately  arose  between  Luther  and  Tetzel  who 
undertook  to  defend  himself.  Luther  acknow- 
ledged the  pontiff  could  remit  the  human  punish- 
ments for  sin,  or  those  infficted  by  the  church ; 
but  denied  his  power  to  absolve  from  the  divine 
punishments,  either  of  the  present  or  future  world  ; 
and  maintained  that  these  divine  punishments 
must  be  removed  either  by  the  merits  of  Jesus 
Christ,  or  by  voluntary  penance  endured  by  the 
sinner.     Pope   Leo  at  first  thought   this   dispute 


SIXTEENTH    CENTirRY.  229 

between  two  monks  a  small  matter,  and  took  no 
account  of  it.  But  it  was  not  long  before  he  dis- 
covered that  it  was  a  serious  business,  and  that 
the  greater  part  of  Germany  was  taking  sides 
with  Luther  against  the  authority  of.  the  Roman 
see. 

II.  Luther  was  summoned  to  appear  before 
cardinal  Cajetan^  the  pope's  legate,  at  Augsburg, 
in  the  month  of  October,  1518.  They  had  several 
interviews  to  no  effect.  Cajetan  manifested  no- 
thing like  a  spirit  of  conciliation  ;  but  peremptorily 
required  Lulher  humbly  to  confess  his  errors, 
without  being  convinced  of  them,  and  to  submit 
his  judgment  to  that  of  the  pontiff.  This  he  could 
not  do  ;  and  therefore  appealed  from  the  pontiff 
ill-informed,  to  the  same  when  better  informed. 
Another  legate  was  appointed  to  confer  with  Lu- 
ther, of  a  more  mild  and  conciliating  disposition ; 
and  he  prevailed  so  far  as  to  induce  him  to  write 
a  very  submissive  letter  to  Leo  X.  in  which  he 
promised  to  be  silent,  provided  his  enemies  would 
also  be  so.  Shortly  after,  Luther  engaged  in  a 
public  disputation  with  John  Eckius,  respecting  the 
power  and  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff.  Eckius 
was  greatly  exasperated,  and  hastened  to  Rome, 
with  a  determination  to  effect  his  destruction. 
Associating  with  him  Cajetan,  and  other  influen- 
tial enemies  of  Luther,  in  the  pontifical  court,  he 
prevailed  on  Leo  X.  to  excommunicate  him  forth- 
with. The  pope  therefore,  most  imprudently, 
issued  his  first  bull  against  Luther,  on  the  15th 
of  June,  1520 ;  in  which  forty-one  tenets  of  his 
were  condemned,  his  writings  adjudged  to  the 
flames,  and  he  was  commanded  to  confess  his 
faults  within  sixty  days,  and  implore  the  clemency 
of  the  pontiff,  or  be  cast  out  of  the  chuxch.  Aa 
20 


23U  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

soon  as  Luther  heard  of  this  sentence  of  the  pope, 
he  first  appealed  to  a  general"  council ;  but  fore- 
seeing that  this  would  avail  him  nothing,  he  formed 
the  bold  determination  at  once  to  withdraw  from 
the  Romish"  church,  before  he  should  be  excom- 
municated by  the  second  bull  of  the  pontiff.  In 
order  that  he  might  do  this  in  a  formal  and  public 
manner,  on  the  10th  of  Dec,  1520,  he  caused  a 
lire  to  be  kindled  without  the  walls  of  the  city,  and 
in  the  presence  of  a  vast  multitude  of  spectators, 
committed  to  the  flames  the  bull  issued  against 
liim,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  pontifical  canon 
law.  By  this  he  signified  that  he  would  be  no 
longer  a  subject  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  conse- 
quently that  the  second  decree  that  was  daily  ex- 
pected from  Rome,  would  be  nugatory.  The  pope's 
bull  of  excommunication  arrived  soon  after. 

III.  Having  taken  this  bold  step  of  publicly 
withdrawing  from  the  church  of  Rome,  it  only 
remained  to  Luther  and  his  adherents  to  attempt 
to  found  a  new  church,  embracing  doctrines  more 
in  conformity  with  the  Holy  Scriptures.  From 
this  time  therefore  he  set  out  to  search  for  the 
truth  with  renewed  diligence ;  revised  and  confir- 
med the  opinions  he  had  already  advanced,  and 
proceeding  still  further,  attacked  the  very  citadel 
of  the  pontifical  authority,  and  shook  it  to  the 
foundation.  In  this  heroic  enterprise,  he  had  the 
aid  of  excellent  men  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  the  doctors  at  Wittemberg,  who  joined  his 
party,  and  especially  Philip  Melancthon.  This 
amiable  and  excellent  man,  and  profound  scholar, 
proved  to  be  a  most  important  coadjutor,  and  next 
to  Luther  himself,  acted  the  most  conspicuous 
part  in  the  Reformation.  And  as  the  fame  of 
Luther's   wisdom  and    heroism,   and  the  great 


SIXTEENTH    CEXTURY.  231 

learning  of  Melancthon  drew  a  great  number  of 
young  men  to  Wittemberg,  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation  were  spread  with  great  rapidity 
through  various  nations. 

IV.  In  the  mean  time  Maximilian  I.  emperor  of 
Germany,  died,  and  his  grandson,  Charles  V.  king 
of  Spain,  was  elected  his  successor,  A.  D.  1519. 
Leo  X.  reminding  Charles  of  the  office  he  had 
assumed,  of  advocate  and  defender  of  the  church, 
urged  him  to  inflict  due  punishment  upon  that 
rebellious  member  of  the  church,  Martin  Luther. 
Charles,  however,  determined  to  give  him  a  hear- 
ing, and  therefore  had  him  summoned  to  attend  a 
diet  to  be  assembled  at  Worms.  Luther  appeared 
at  Worms,  being  protected  by  a  safe  conduct  from 
the  emperor,  and  boldly  pleaded  his  cause  before 
the  diet.  This  journey  to  Worms  was  a  hazard- 
ous undertaking,  considering  the  power  and 
malignity  of  his  enemies.  Even  the  emperor's 
safe  conduct  might  not  be  a  sufficient  protection, 
as  had  been  the  case  with  John  Huss.  But 
Luther  was  firm,  and  being  warned  of  the 
danger  by  his  friends,  he  replied,  that  he  would 
go  thither,  if  there  were  as  many  devils  there, 
as  there  were  tiles  upon  the  roofs  of  their 
houses.  Luther  made  a  manly  and  able  defence 
before  the  diet,  and  concluded  with  these  words : 
— "  Let  me  then  be  refuted  and  convinced  by 
the  testimony  of  Scripture,  or  by  the  clearest 
arguments ;  otherwise  I  cannot  and  will  not 
recant,  for  it  is  neither  safe  nor  expedient  to  act 
against  conscience.  Here  I  take  my  stand.  I 
cannot  do  otherwise ;  God  help  me  !  Amen." 
But  his  enemies  prevailed  ;  and,  although  he 
obtained  the  liberty  of  returning  home  unmo- 
lested, yet  an  edict  was  published  after  his  de- 


232  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

parture,  which  declared  him  a  schismatic  and 
heretic,  and  put  him  under  the  ban  of  the  em- 
pire. His  friends  foreseeing  the  storm  that  was 
coming  upon  him,  arrested  him  in  disguise  on 
his  return,  and  conducted  him  to  the  castle  of 
Wartburg,  where  he  lay  concealed  ten  months, 
calling  it  his  Fatmos^  and  beguiling  the  time 
very  profitably  in  writing  and  study. 

V.  While  Luther  remained  in  this  retreat,  An- 
drew Carolostadt,  a  learned  doctor  of  VVittemberg, 
and  colleague  of  Luther,  with  others,  began  to  cre- 
ate disturbances,  by  attempting  to  carry  forward 
the  Reformation  too  rapidly.  Having  gathered 
the  common  people  around  him,  he  rushed  into  the 
cathedral  church,  destroyed  the  pictures  and  the 
altar,  and  hindered  the  priests  from  saying  mass. 
Luther  hastened  to  VVittemberg  from  his  conceal- 
ment, and  corrected  this  abuse,  wisely  declaring, 
that  errors  must  first  be  extirpated  from  people's 
minds,  before  the  insignia  of  those  errors  can  be 
advantageously  removed. 

VL  While  these  things  were  going  on  in  Ger- 
many, a  like  wound  had  been  inflicted  on  the  papal 
power  in  the  neighbouring  Helvetia,  by  the  dis- 
cerning and  erudite  Ulrich  Zwingle,  a  canon  and 
priest  of  Zurich.  This  reformer  had  indeed  dis- 
covered some  portion  of  the  truth,  before  Luther 
commenced  contending  openly  with  the  pope  ;  but 
being  excited  and  instructed  by  his  example  and 
writings,  he  not  only  expounded  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures in  public  discourses,  but  in  the  year  1519, 
successfully  opposed  Bernardin  Samson  of  Milan, 
who  was  impudently  driving  the  same  trade  among 
the  Swiss,  that  Tetzel  had  carried  on  among  the 
Germans. 

VJL  While  the  Reformation  was  thus  rapidly 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  233 

advancing,  both  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  a 
most  unhappy  contest  arose  among  the  reformers 
themselves,  respecting  the  manner  in  which  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  present  in  the  sacred 
supper.  Luther  and  his  adherents,  while  they  re- 
jected the  Catholic  dogma  of  transubstantiation  ; 
i.  e.  that  there  is  a  transmutation  of  the  substance 
of  the  bread  and  wine  into  the  flesh  and  blood  of 
Christ,  yet  held  to  consubstantiation,  as  it  is  call- 
ed ;  i.  e.jthat  there  is  a  real  and  corporeal  presence 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  in,  under,  or 
along  with  the  bread  and  wine ;  so  that  the  sacra- 
mental substances,  after  consecration,  became  each 
of  them  two-fold;  namely,  the  bread  became  both 
bread  and  the  flesh  of  Christ,  and  the  wine  became 
both  wine  and  the  blood  of  Christ.  On  the  other 
hand,  Carolostadt,  and  after  him  Zwingle,  CEco- 
lampadius,  Bucer,  &c.  maintained  that  the  elements 
of  bread  and  wine  in  the  sacred  supper,  were  only 
symbols  or  emblems,  by  which  people  should  be 
excited  to  commemorate  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
the  blessings  resulting  to  us  therefrom.  Zwingle 
declared  the  ordinance  to  be  not  a  sacrifice,  but  a 
commemoration  of  the  sacrifice  once  offered  on  the 
cross,  and  a  seal  of  the  redemption  by  Christ. 
This  controversy  was  carried  on  for  a  considera- 
ble time,  with  great  warmth  on  both  sides,  and 
many  fruitless  efforts  were  made  to  reconcile  and 
unite  both  parties.  Luther  never  would  consent 
to  yield  the  point,  or  even  to  acknowledge  his  op- 
ponents as  brethren.  It  was  this  dispute,  on  a 
point  in  itself  so  trivial,  that  divided  the' protest- 
ants  into  the  two  great  bodies  of  Lutherans  and 
Reformed. 

VIII.  Another  thing  calculated  to  prejudice  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation,  was,  what  was  called,  the 
20* 


234  ECCLESIASTICAL    IIISTOUY. 

war  of  the  peasants.  ThcM-c  arose,  in  the  year 
1525,  like  a  sudden  tornado,  an  innumerable  mul- 
titude of  seditious  and  delirious  fanatics,  in  various 
parts  of  Germany,  who  declared  war  against  the 
laws  and  the  magistrates,  and  spread  rapine,  con- 
flagration, and  slaughter  through  the  community. 
This  sedition  was  at  first  of  a  civil  nature.  But 
after  the  fanatic,  Thomas  Munzer,  who  had  before 
deceived  others  by  his  fictitious  visions  and  dreams, 
and  others  of  like  character  had  joined  them,  it 
became,  especially  in  Saxony  and  Thuringia,  a 
religious  or  holy  war.  This  wild  rabble  had  in- 
deed very  different  ends  in  view.  Some  desired 
freedom  from  the  restraints  of  law  ;  others  wished 
relief  from  their  taxes  and  burdens  ;  others  contem- 
plated the  formation  of  a  new  and  perfectly  pure 
church,  and  pretended  to  be  inspired  ;  others  again 
were  hurried  on  by  their  passions,  without  any 
definite  object  in  view.  While  it  is  admitted  that 
rrjany  of  them,  by  mistaking  Luther's  doctrine  of 
Christian  liberty  and  rejection  of  papal  authority, 
may  have  been  induced  to  run  into  this  wild  and 
lawless  course,  yet  it  is  altogether  unfair  to  ascribe 
these  outrages  to  the  Reformation,  or  to  the  doc- 
trines taught  by  Luther.  He  sufficiently  refuted 
this  calumny,  by  publishing  books  expressly 
against  this  turbulent  faction.  This  storm  subsid- 
ed after  the  battle  of  Mulhausen,  in  which  the  peas- 
ants were  defeated.  Munzer  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  subjected  to  capital  punishment.  According 
to  some,  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  persons 
lost  their  lives  in  this  war  of  the  peasants. 

IX.  In  a  diet  of  the  German  states  assembled 
at  Spire  in  1526,  it  was  decided  that  a  petition 
should  be  presented  to  the  emperor,  to  call  a  gen- 
eral council  without  delay  ;  and,  in  the  mean  time, 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  235 

that  each  one  should  be  left  to  manage  the  reli- 
gious concerns  of  his  own  territory  in  his  own 
way.  In  a  diet  at  the  same  place,  in  1529,  this 
decree  was  revoked,  and  all  changes  in  the  public 
reliirion  were  declared  to  be  unlawful,  until  the  de- 
cision  of  a  general  council  should  take  place. 
Against  this  proceeding,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  the  other  patrons  of  the 
Reformation,  entered  their  protest,  and  appealed  to 
the  emperor,  and  to  a  future  council.  Hence 
originated  the  name  of  Protestants,  borne  from  this 
time  onward  by  those  who  forsook  the  communion 
of  the  church  of  Rome.  A  confession  of  faith  was 
drawn  up  by  Melancthon,  assisted  by  Luther,  and 
laid  before  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  in  a  diet  as- 
sembled at  Auo;sburg  in  1530,  and  thence  called 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  to  which  the  Lutheran 
church  adheres  to  the  present  day.  The  principles 
of  the  Reformation  soon  spread  into  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  and  were  to  be  found  more  or  less  in 
most  countries  of  Europe.  There  were  very  many 
in  France  who  favoured  the  cause ;  but  there  they 
suffered  much  persecution.  The  same  happened 
in  Spain,  and  also  in  England. 

X.  The  Anabaptists  created  not  a  little  disturb- 
ance about  this  time.  In  1533,  a  party  of  them 
settled  at  Munster  under  two  leaders  of  the  names 
of  Matthias  and  Bockholdt.  Having  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  city,  they  deposed  the  magis- 
trates, confiscated  the  estates  of  such  as  had  es- 
caped, and  deposited  their  wealth  in  a  public  treas- 
ury for  common  use.  They  made  preparation  for 
the  defence  of  the  city  ;  invited  the  Anabaptists  in 
the  Low  Countries  to  assemble  at  Munster,  which 
they  called  Mount  Sion,  that  from  thence  they 
might  reduce  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  under 


236  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTOBY. 

their  dominion.  Matthias  was  soon  cut  off  by  the 
bishop  of  Munster's  army,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Bockholdt,  who  was  proclaimed  by  a  special  de- 
signation of  heaven,  as  the  pretended  king  of  Sion, 
and  invested  with  legislative  powers  like  those  of 
Moses.  The  city  of  Munster,  however,  was  taken 
after  a  long  siege,  and  Bockholdt  was  punished 
whh  death.  This  seditious  procedure  of  the  Ana- 
baptists, induced  most  of  the  princes  of  Europe  to 
enact  severe  laws  against  the  whole  sect ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  in  subsequent  years,  vast  num- 
bers of  them,  both  the  innocent  and  the  guilty, 
were  miserably  put  to  death. 

XI.  The  council  of  Trent,  convoked  by  pope 
Paul  III.,  commenced  its  sessions  in  1545,  and 
continued  them,  with  numerous  interruptions,  un- 
til 1563.  To  the  decisions  of  this  council,  vvhich 
was  wholly  in  the  pope's  interest,  the  Protestants 
refused  to  submit.  A  war  against  them  was 
therefore  agreed  upon  between  the  pope  and  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  By  this  war,  and  the  trea- 
chery of  Maurice,  duke  of  Saxony,  who  was  se- 
duced by  the  promises  of  the  emperor,  the  cause 
of  the  Protestants  seemed  almost  ruined.  After 
this  followed  what  was  called  the  Interim^  a  pa- 
per drawn  up  by  order  of  the  emperor,  in  order  to 
settle  difficulties  for  the  present,  until  it  could  be 
done  in  a  general  council.  This  being  somewhat 
on  the  principle  of  compromise,  was  very  objec- 
tionable to  both  parties.  Finally,  a  diet  that  as- 
sembled at  Augsburg,  in  the  year  1555,  granted 
to  the  Protestants,  after  so  much  slaughter,  and  so 
many  calamities  and  conflicts,  that  firm  and  sta- 
ble religious  peace  which  they  still  enjoy.  It  was 
then  decreed,  that  all  those  who  had  embraced 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  should  be  free  and  ex- 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  237 

empt  from  all  jurisdiction  of  the  pontiff  and  the 
bishops  ;  that  they  should  be  governed  by  their 
own  laws  and  regulations ;  and  that  all  Germans 
should  be  at  liberty  to  follow  whichever  of  the 
two  religions  they  pleased  :  and  lastly,  they  were 
declared  public  enemies  of  Germany,  who  should 
make  war  upon  others,  or  molest  them,  on  the 
ground  of  their  religion.  All  other  denominations 
of  Christians,  however,  except  Roman  Catholics 
and  Lutherans,  were  expressly  excluded  from  the 
privileges  of  this  compact.  The  Zwinglians,  Cal- 
vinists,  or  Reformed,  were  therefore  left  in  the 
same  state  as  before. 

XII.  While  these  events  were  occurring  in 
Germany,  the  light,  as  has  already  been  ob- 
served, began  to  be  diffused  through  the  other 
countries  of  Europe.  In  England,  the  followers 
of  Wickliffe  still  existed  ;  and  by  them  the 
writings  of  Luther  were  soon  introduced,  and 
read  with  avidity.  Henry  VIII.,  king  of  Eng- 
land, was  a  bigoted  catholic,  and  in  1522,  wrote 
a  book  in  confutation  of  Luther's  doctrines,  for 
which  he  obtained  from  the  pope  the  title  of  De- 
fender of  the  Faith — a  title  still  retained  by  the 
kings  of  England.  Yet  Henry  did  much  to  pro- 
mote the  Reformation,  by  quarrelling,  and  finally 
breakino-  with  the  pope,  renouncing  his  authority, 
and  having  himself  declared  the  supreme  head-oi 
the  English  church  ;  although  his  motives  and  de- 
signs were  far  otherwise.  In  1526,  William 
Tindal  published  his  English  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  was  printed  at  Antwerp, 
in  Flanders.  These  books,  finding  a  very  ready 
sale  in  England,  Tonstall,  bishop  of  London,  in 
order  to  prevent  their  circulation,  sent  over  and 
purchased  up  all  that  remained  of  the  edition,  ana 


238  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

committed  them  to  the  flames.  By  this  means, 
Tindal  was  enabled  to  go  on,  and  publish  a  new 
and  improved  edition.  When  one,  who  had  been 
taken  up  on  the  suspicion  of  heresy,  vvas  asked 
by  the  chancellor,  Sir  Thomas  More,  how  Tindal 
subsisted  abroad,  and  who  they  were  in  London 
that  abetted  and  supported  him,  he  replied  that 
the  bishop  of  London  maintained  him  by  sending 
money  to  buy  up  the  impression  of  his  Testa- 
ment. The  chancellor  smiled,  admitted  the  truth 
of  the  declaration,  and  suffered  the  accused  per- 
son to  escape.  The  importation  of  the  books  was 
prohibited  ;  and  those  suspected  of  being  guilty  in 
this  matter  were  adjudged,  by  Sir  Thomas  More, 
to  ride  with  their  faces  to  the  tails  of  their  horses, 
with  papers  on  their  heads,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ments, and  other  books  which  they  had  dispersed, 
hung  about  their  cloaks,  and  at  the  standard  in 
Cheapside,  to  throw  them  into  a  fire  prepared 
for  that  purpose,  and  to  be  fined  at  the  king's 
pleasure. 

Henry  VIIL  died  in  the  year  1547,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Edward  VL,  a  child  in  years, 
but  mature  in  wisdom,  intelligence,  and  virtue. 
King  Edward  vigorously  promoted  the  Reforma- 
tion during  his  short  reign.  In  this  he  was  as- 
sisted  by  the  duke  of  Somerset,  the  archbishops 
Cranmer  and  Holgate,  Sir  W.  Paget,  secretary 
of  state,  and  the  bishops  Holbeach,  Goodrich, 
Latimer,  and  Ridley  ;  and  also  by  Martin  Bucer, 
Paul  Fagius,  Peter  Martyr,  and  others,  whom  he 
had  invited  from  abroad.  The  leaders  in  opposi- 
tion to  reform  were  the  princess  Mary,  earl 
Wriothesley,  and  bishops  Tonstall,  Gardiner,  and 
Bonner.  These  last  were  imprisoned  for  refusing 
to  obey  the  royal  injunctions  regulating  religious 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  239 

worship.  But  unfortunately  for  the  reformation 
in  England,  king  Edward  died  in  1553,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  princess  Mary,  a  most  bigoted 
and  cruel  catholic ;  and  who,  on  account  of  her 
persecutions,  is  often  called  the  bloody  Wary, 
Queen  Mary  disguised  her  intentions,  until  she 
was  fully  established  on  the  throne;  and  then 
proceeded  to  release  from  prison,  and  restore  to 
their  sees,  the  popish  bishops,  Bonner,  Gardiner, 
Tonstall,  &c.,  and  to  imprison  the  reformers, 
Cranmer,  Hooper,  Coverdale,  Rogers,  Holgate, 
and  others.  Eight  hundred  friends  to  the  Reforma- 
tion fled  to  the  continent,  and  settled  chiefly  along 
the  Rhine.  Among  these  were  five  bishops,  five 
deans,  lour  archdeacons,  and  above  fifty  doctors 
in  divinity,  besides  noblemen  and  merchants.  Six 
bishops  were  turned  out,  the  mass  set  up,  and  the 
popish  rites  every  where  restored.  All  the  mar- 
ried and  recusant  clergy,  to  the  number  of  some 
thousands,  were  deprived.  The  parliament  pro- 
ceeded, in  1555,  to  repeal  all  laws  in  favour  of 
reformation,  passed  since  the  time  Henry  VIII. 
first  began  his  contest  with  the  pope ;  and  to  re- 
vive the  old  laws  against  heretics.  The  fires  of 
persecution  were  now  kindled.  John  Rogers  was 
the  first  martyr ;  and  bishops  Ridley,  Latimer, 
and  Cranmer,  were  among  the  victims.  Bishop 
Bonner  was  the  chief  agent  in  their  execution. 
The  whole  number  put  to  death,  during  the  re- 
mainder of  this  reign,  was  about  288.  Many, 
besides,  died  in  prison,  and  great  numbers  fled 
the  country.  Popery  was  now  completely  trium- 
phant ;  and  the  Reformation  seemed  entirely  sup- 


Queen  Mary  died,  November  7th,  1558 ;  and 
with  her,  the  cause  of  popery  in  England.     She 


240  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

was  succeeded  by  her  sister  Elizabeth,  who  pos- 
sessed a  vigorous  and  resolute  mind,  and  was 
friendly  to  the  Reformation.  The  persecuting  laws 
of  queen  Mary  were  repealed,  the  sovereign  was 
invested  with  power  to  regulate  the  doctrines,  dis- 
cipline, and  worship  of  the  church,  and  to  appoint 
all  bishops  ;  and  that  form  of  religion  and  worship 
was  established  which  still  prevails  in  England. 

XIII.  "  Into  the  neighbouring  kingdom  of  Scot- 
land, the  elements  of  a  pure  religion  were  eariy 
introduced  by  certain  young  noblemen  who  had 
resided  in  Germany.  But  the  papal  power,  sup- 
ported by  inhuman  laws  and  penalties,  for  many 
years  prevented  it  from  taking  firm  root.  The 
principal  author  of  the  entire  abolition  of  the  Ro- 
mish dominion  over  Scotland,  was  John  Knox,  a 
disciple  of  Calvin,  a  man  of  eloquence,  and  of  a 
bold  and  fearless  character.  Proceeding  from 
Geneva  to  Scotland,  in  the  year  1557,  he  in  a 
short  time  so  roused  up  the  people,  by  his  dis- 
courses, that  the  majority  of  them  abandoned  the 
institutions  of  their  fathers,  and  destroyed  every 
vestige  of  the  Romish  religion.  From  that  time 
onward,  the  Scots  have  pertinaciously  held  to  that 
form  of  religion  and  discipline,  which  was  estab- 
lished at  Geneva  under  the  auspices  of  John  Cal- 
vin, Knox's  preceptor ;  nor  could  any  considera- 
tions  afterwards  induce  them  to  adopt  the  ecclesi- 
astical institutions  and  forms  of  worship  of  the 
English." 

XIV.  In  Ireland  the  Reformation  never  made 
great  progress.  The  church  of  England,  as  by 
law  established,  was  also  made  the  established 
church  of  Ireland  ;  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  native 
Irish,  have  for  ages  been,  and  still  are,  bigoted 
Roman  catholics.     The  protestants  in  Ireland  are 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  241 

chiefly  emigrants  from  England  and  Scotland. 
While  bloody  Mary  was  on  the  throne  of  England, 
she  despatched  Dr.  Cole  to  Ireland  with  a  commis- 
sion to  persecute  with  fire  and  sword,  such  as  then 
favoured  the  Reformation.  He  lodged  on  his  way 
at  the  house  of  a  protestant  lady,  when  he  took 
occasion  to  boast  of  the  power  he  had  from  the 
queen  to  persecute  the  protestants  of  Ireland.  The 
good  lady  found  an  opportunity  before  he  left,  to 
slip  out  the  queen's  commission,  and  put  in  its 
place  a  pack  of  cards.  When  the  doctor  got  to 
Ireland,  he  found  only  the  pack  of  cards,  in  place 
of  the  queen's  commission :  and  before  he  could 
get  it  renewed,  the  queen  died,  which  put  an  end 
to  such  measures. 

XV.  The  United  Netherlands  revoked  entirely 
from  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  in  the  year  1573,  es- 
tablished the  doctrines,  the  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion, and  the  worship  of  the  Swiss  ;  yet  gave  to  all 
the  citizens  entire  liberty  of  opinion  on  religious 
subjects,  provided  they  attempted  nothing  against 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  community. 

Even  in  Spain  and  Italy  the  reformed  religion 
made  great  progress,  soon  after  the  first  conflicts 
between  Luther  and  the  pontiffs.  But  the  vigil- 
ance of  the  inquisitors  found  means  to  suppress  it. 
Many  were  imprisoned,  tortured,  and  slain  ;  and 
many  fled  into  exile. 


21 


242  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    ROMISH    CHURCH. 

I.  The  Jesuits. — 2.  FrancisXavier.— 3.  Profligacy  of  the  popes 
— 4.  Bull  In  Coena  Domini. — 5.  Points  contested  in  the  Ro- 
man church. — 6.  Oriental  churches. 

I.  As  the  Roman  pontiffs  had  lost  so  nnuch  ground 
in  Europe,  they  became  much  more  anxious  than 
before,  to  propagate  Christianity  in  other  parts  ol' 
the  world,  in  order  that  they  might  still  be  able  to 
maintain  their  power  and  dignity.  And  for  this  pur- 
pose the  improvements  in  navigation  by  the  Portu- 
guese, and  the  intercourse  which  they  opened  with 
Africa  and  southern  Asia,  as  well  as  the  discovery 
and  subjugation  of  the  New  World  by  the  Span- 
iards, afforded  great  facilities.  In  order  that  these 
opportunities  might  be  duly  improved,  and  every 
means  employed  to  sustain  the  waning  power  and 
authority  of  the  pope,  the  society  of  the  Jesuits 
was  instituted  in  the  year  1540.  Ignatius  Loyola, 
a  Spanish  knight  and  ignorant  fanatic,  was  the 
founder  of  this  order  ;  but  he  was  under  the  direc- 
tion of  wise  and  acute  men,  who  enabled  him  to 
found  such  a  society  as  the  state  of  the  church 
then  required. 

This  society,  devoted  wholly  to  the  interest  of 
the  popes,  bound  themselves  by  a  solemn  oath, 
that  they  would  instantly  go  wherever  the  Roman 
pontiff  should  at  any  time  bid  them.  The  general 
of  the  order  held  his  office  for  life,  was  to  reside 
constantly  at  Rome,  and  had  a  select  council  to 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  243 

advise  him,  and  to  execute  his  orders.  His  au- 
thority over  the  whole  order,  and  every  person, 
business,  and  thing  connected  with  it,  was  abso- 
lute ;  nor  was  he  accountable  to  any  earthly  supe- 
rior, except  the  pope.  The  whole  society  was  like 
a  regular  army,  completely  officered,  trained  to  ser- 
vice, and  governed  by  the  will  of  one  man,  who 
stood  at  the  pope's  right  hand.  Every  individual 
is  most  solemnly  bound  to  secresy  ;  and  the  mys- 
teries of  the  society  are  imparted  only  to  a  kw  of 
the  professors,  aged  men,  of  long  experience,  and 
of  the  most  tried  characters  :  the  rest  are  entirely 
ignorant  of  them.  To  this  society,  so  well  quali- 
fied for  the  business,  it  was  given  in  special  charge, 
constantly  to  train  up  suitable  men,  to  be  commis- 
sioned and  sent  by  the  pontiffs  into  the  remotest 
regions  as  preachers  of  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Great  numbers  of  these  missionaries  went  abroad 
into  almost  every  part  of  the  world,  and  laboured* 
rather  to  promote  the  glory  of  the  Roman  pontiff, 
and  the  interest  of  their  own  sect,  than  the  glory 
and  interests  of  Jesus  Christ. 

II.  Among  the  most  distinguished  of  these  mis- 
sionaries, was  Francis  Xavier,  commonly  called 
the  apostle  of  the  Indies.  In  the  year  1542,  he 
proceeded  to  the  Portuguese  East  Indies,  and  in  a 
few  years  filled  no  small  part,  both  of  the  conti- 
nent and  islands,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  Christ- 
ian, or  rather,  the  Romish  religion.  At  Goa, 
where  he  resided  a  number  of  years,  the  Inquisi- 
tion was  established,  under  the  Portuguese  govern- 
ment ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  had  greater  influence 
in  bringing  the  natives  to  embrace  Christianity, 
than  the  exhortalions  and  arguments  of  the  Jesuits. 
Xavier  travelled  extensively  in  Hindostan,  seve- 
ral times  visited  Ceylon,  and  the  islands  to  the  east 


244  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  In  1547,  he  went  to  Japan 
and  spent  two  years  and  a  half;  and  laid  the  (bun- 
dation  of  a  very  numerous  body  of  Christians,  that 
flourished  for  many  years  in  that  extensive  empire. 
He  returned  again  to  Goa,  and  immediately  made 
preparation  for  a  mission  to  China.  He  had  set  out, 
and  arrived  within  sight  of  that  empire,  when  he 
was  taken  sick  and  died  at  the  island  of  Sancian, 
in  the  year  1552.  After  his  death,  other  mission- 
aries of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  entered  China  ; 
among  whom  the  most  distinguished  was  Matthew 
Ricci,  an  Italian.  He,  by  his  skill  in  mathema- 
tics, and  by  other  arts,  which  he  knew  well  how 
to  practise,  conciliated  the  favour  of  some  of  the 
chief  men,  and  even  of  the  emperor  himself;  and 
obtained  for  himself  and  companions,  the  liberty 
to  explain  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  to  the  peo- 
ple. He  therefore  may  justly  be  considered  as  the 
founder  and  chief  author  of  that  numerous  body, 
in  China,  that  were  afterwards  gathered  into  the 
Roman  catholic  church,  some  remains  of  which 
continue  to  the  present  day. 

III.  Many  of  the  popes  of  this  century  were 
very  immoral  in  their  lives  and  manifested  a  spirit 
very  inconsistent  with  the  title  they  assumed,  of 
head  of  the  church,  and  vicar  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Leo  X.  was  a  man  of  letters,  a  facetious  compan- 
ion, a  poet  and  historian;  but  was  regarded  as  an 
infidel — doubted  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and 
considered  the  Christian  religion  as  a  fable,  but  a 
])rofitable  one.  Paul  III.  was  in  his  youth  a  great 
debauchee.  He  was  an  adept  in  the  art  of  dissim- 
ulation. Julius  III.  bestowed  a  cardinal's  hat  on 
the  keeper  of  his  monkeys,  a  boy  chosen  from 
among  the  lowest  of  the  populace.  Paul  IV.  was 
an  arrogant,  ambitious,  and  violent  pontiff;  and  wa3 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  245 

the  first  who  instituted  the  Index  Ubronim  prohibi- 
toruni^  or  the  Index  of  prohibited  books,  including 
the  Bible  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  which  Roman 
catholics  may  not  read  without  subjecting  them- 
selves to  the  heavy  censure  of  the  church.  Greg- 
ory XII.  openly  approved  the  bloody  massacre  at 
Paris  on  St.  Bartholomew's  eve,  and  participated 
in  a  treasonable  plot  against  queen  Elizabeth. 
Pius  V.  and  Sixtus  V.  distinguished  themselves 
above  the  rest ;  the  former  by  his  extreme  severity 
against  heretics,  and  by  publishing  the  celebrated 
Bull,  called  In  Coana  Domini^  which  is  annually 
read  at  Rome,  on  the  festival  of  the  Holy  Sacra- 
ment ;  and  the  latter  by  his  many  vigorous, 
splendid  and  resolute  acts  for  advancing  the  glory 
and  honour  of  the  church. 

IV.  The  Bull  In  Caina  Domini^  is  a  rare  pro- 
duction, consisting  of  thirty-one  articles,  in  which 
all  classes  and  characters  of  persons,  who  in  any 
way,  or  by  any  means,  oppose,  hinder,  or  contra- 
vene, the  power,  honour,  and  authority  of  the 
Roman  pontiffs,  are  excommunicated  and  anathe- 
matized. 

V.  The  Roman  church  boasts  of  its  unity,  its 
internal  peace  and  harmony.  But  this  is  a  false 
pretence.  The  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  con- 
lend  vehemently  respecting  various  subjects.  The 
Scotists  and  Thomists  wage  eternal  war.  The 
Jesuits  have  ever  laboured  to  depress  all  the  other 
religious  fraternities,  and  to  strip  them  of  their 
wealth.  This  has  excited  the  most  virulent  en- 
mity against  them,  particularly  among  the  Bene- 
dictines and  Dominicans.  But  besides,  there  are 
a  number  of  points  that  have  been  violently  con- 
tested by  different  parties,  and  never  yet  decided. 
The  Jesuits  have  been  the  most  staunch,  as  well 

21* 


246  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTOKY. 

t 

as  the  most  subtle  and  impudent  defenders  of  the 
church,  the  power,  authority,  and  prerogatives  of 
the  Roman  pontiff;  and  of  these  Robert  Bellar- 
mine  is  the  principal,  who  was  a  Jesuit,  and  a 
cardinal.  His  works,  embracing  all  the  contro- 
versies of  his  church,  fill  several  large  volumes. 
This  distinguished  advocate  of  the  Romish  church 
at  his  death,  it  is  said,  bequeathed  one  half  of  his 
soul  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  other  half  to  Jesus 
Christ.     • 

VI.  The  oriental  church  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, consisted,  (as  at  the  present  time,)  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  various  independent  sects,  that 
practise  different  forms,  and  hold  no  communion 
with  one  another.  The  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple is  the  chief,  who  has  under  him  those  of  Alex- 
andria, Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  The  right  of 
electing  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  belongs  to 
the  twelve  bishops  nearest  to  that  city ;  but  the 
right  of  approving  the  election,  and  of  imparting 
to  the  prelate  authority  to  use  his  powers,  belongs 
to  the  Turkish  emperor.  This  therefore  is  fre- 
quently procured  by  bribery.  The  Russians,  the 
Georgians  or  Iberians,  and  the  Colchians  or  Min- 
grelians,  all  embrace  the  doctrines  and  rites  of  the 
Greeks,  but  are  independent,  or  not  subject  to  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople.  The  independent 
sects  are,  the  Monophysites  or  Jacobites,  and  the 
Nestorians.  The  Monophysites  of  Africa  are  the 
Abyssinians,  and  the  Copts;  the  latter  of  whom 
are  those  Christians  who  inhabit  Egypt,  Nubia, 
and  the  adjacent  regions.  The  Nestorians  are 
divided  among  themselves.  A  large  number  of 
them  inhabit  Mesopotamia  and  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Persia.  They  are  said  to  have  preserved 
themselves  from  the  superstitions  and  corruptions 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  247 

that  have  deformed  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches, 
more  than  any  Christians  resident  in  the  East. 
They  hold  to  two  persons  as  well  as  two  natures 
in  Christ.  But  it  is  thought  that  they  differ  from 
others  chiefly  in  words.  The  Armenians  also  are 
an  independent  sect.  The  Druses,  that  inhabit 
the  mountains  of  Libanus,  and  the  Kurds,  that 
inhabit  Persia,  seem  to  be  a  kind  of  semi-christian 
sects;  of  which  there  are  many  other  kinds  in  the 
east,  that  only  observe  some  Christian  ceremonies 
combined  with  heathen  or  Mohammedan  rites. 
The  Maronites,  who  reside  principally  on  the 
mountains  of  Libanus  and  Antiiibanus,  are  subject 
to  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  pontiff. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

1,  Adiaphoristic  and  Synergistic  controversies. — 2.  Flacius. — 
3.  Osiander. — 4.  Consubstantiation. — 5.  Huber. 

I,  We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  some  further 
account  of  the  Lutheran  church  in  this  century. 
After  the  death  of  Luther,  which  happened  in  the 
year  1546,  several  disturbances  and  disputes  took 
place  among  his  followers.  Philip  Melancthon, 
who  was  naturally  of  a  much  milder,  and  more 
conciliatory  disposition  than  Luther,  and  who  was 
now  at  the  head  of  the  party,  thought  that  many 
things  of  an  indifferent  nature,  might  be  yielded 
for  the  sake  of  peace.     In  adopting  the  Interim 


248  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  Charles  V.,  therefore,  he  decided  that  in  things 
indifferent  {ifi  rebus  ad'ui'pkoris,)  the  will  of  the 
emperor  might  be  obeyed.  This  was  strongly 
opposed  by  others;  and  hence  arose  the  violent 
contest,  called  the  Adiapkoristic  controversy, 
which  lasted  many  years.  In  this  sad  controversy 
there  were  two  principal  points  at  issue.  First; 
whether  the  things  that  Melancthon  deemed  indif' 
ferenl,  (such  as  pri<3sts'  garments,  the  surplice 
customs  indicative  of  worship  paid  to  the  host,  as 
the  tolling  of  bells  at  its  elevation,  the  use  of  for- 
mulas of  worship,  whether  prayers  in  public  wor- 
ship should  be  read  or  sung,  respecting  the  obser- 
vance of  various  times  of  worship,  as  vespers, 
matins,  the  canonical  hours,  and  the  days  devoted 
to  Mary  and  the  Apostles,  &c.)  actually  were  so 
or  not.  Secondly,  whether  it  is  lawful,  in  things 
indifferent,  and  not  essential  to  religion,  to  suc- 
cumb to  the  enemies  of  truth.  Out  of  this  grew 
two  other  controversies.  One  respected  good 
works;  whether  good  works  are  necessary  to  sal- 
vation. This  Melancthon  and  his  friends  asserted, 
and  others  denied  ;  particularly  Nicholas  Amsdorf 
went  so  far  in  the  heat  of  controversy  as  to  main- 
tain, that  good  works  were  pernicious  to  salvation. 
The  other  was  called  the  Synergistic  controversy. 
"The  Synergists  were  nearly  the  same  as  the 
Semi-Pelagians ;  i.  e.  they  were  persons  who 
supposed  that  God  is  not  the  sole  author  of  our 
conversion  to  him,  but  that  man  co-operates  with 
God  in  the  renovation  of  his  own  mind.  On  this 
subject,  Melancthon  differed,  at  least  in  words, 
from  Luther  ;  and  in  the  Leipsic  conference,  he 
did  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  God  so  draws  and 
converts  adults,  that  some  agency  of  their  wills 
accompanies    his    influences.      The   pupils    and 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  249 

friends  ofMelancthon  adopted  his  language.  But 
the  strenuous  Lutherans  conceived  that  this  senti- 
ment corrupted  and  subverted  Luther's  doctrine 
of  the  servitude  of  the  will,  or  of  man's  impotence 
to  regenerate  himself  and  to  perform  any  good 
actions ;  and  they  therefore  violently  assailed  the 
persons  whom  they  called  Synergists.  In  this 
contest,  the  principal  champions  were  Victorinus 
Strigel,  who  the  most  openly  and  ingeniously  de- 
fended the  Melancthonian  doctrine,  and  Matthias 
Flacius,  who  defended  the  old  opinion  of  Luther." 

n.  Flacius  was  a  turbulent  man,  whom  nature 
had  fitted  to  sow  discord  and  promote  contention : 
he  therefore  not  only  cherished  all  the  old  con- 
troversies with  great  zeal,  but  also  stirred  up 
new  ones.  In  a  formal  disputation  between  him 
and  Strigel,  respecting  the  natural  power  of  man 
to  regenerate  himself  and  do  good,  being  asked 
whether  original  sin,  or  the  vitiosity  of  the  human 
soul,  was  to  be  classed  among  substances  or  acci- 
dents, he  replied,  that  it  should  be  reckoned  among 
substances ;  and  to  the  end  of  life  he  maintained 
this  erroneous  sentiment,  that  original  sin  is  the 
very  substance  of  a  man,  with  so  much  perti- 
nacity, that  he  would  sooner  part  with  all  his 
honours  and  privileges,  than  reno-unce  it.  This 
was  going  too  far  for  most  of  his  own  party,  and 
introduced  further  contests,  that  greatly  afflicted 
the  Lutheran  church,  and  brought  great  detriment 
to  their  cause  among  the  papists. 

III.  Another  disturbance  was  produced  by  An- 
drew Osiander,  a  man  distinguished  for  pride,  and 
the  love  of  singularity.  He  maintained,  that 
Christ,  considered  in  his  human  nature  only,  was 
under  obligation  to  keep  the  law  on  his  own  ac- 
count ;  and  therefore  could  not,  by  his  obedience, 


250  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

obtain  justification  and  pardon  for  sinners : — that 
it  is  only  through  that  eternal  and  essential  right- 
eousness which  dwells  in  Christ,  considered  as 
God,  and  which  resides  in  his  divine  nature, 
united  to  the  human,  that  mankind  can  obtain 
complete  justification.  That  man  becomes  a  par- 
taker of  this  divine  righteousness  by  faith;  since, 
by  this  uniting  principle,  Christ  dwells  in  the 
heart  of  man  with  his  divine  righteousness.  But 
where  this  divine  righteousness  is,  God  can  be- 
hold no  sin ;  therefore,  when  it  is  present  with 
Christ,  in  the  hearts  of  believers,  they  are  consi- 
dered as  righteous,  although  they  be  sinners. 
Moreover,  this  divine  and  justifying  righteousness 
of  Christ  excites  the  faithful  to  the  pursuit  and 
practice  of  personal  holiness.  On  the  contrary, 
Francis  Stancarus,  a  turbulent  and  passionate 
man,  in  attempting  to  confute  Osiander,  falling, 
as  is  common,  into  the  opposite  error,  excluded 
the  divine  nature  of  Christ  from  the  work  of 
redemption  and  atonement ;  and  maintained,  that 
the  office  of  mediator  between  God  and  men, 
pertained  exclusively  to  the  human  nature  of 
Christ. 

IV.  In  the  year  1570,  after  the  death  of  Me- 
lancthon,  a  very  considerable  disturbance  was 
created  by  an  attempt  of  Caspar  Peucer,  a  son-in- 
law  of  Melancthon,  and  others,  to  abolish  the  doc- 
trine of  Luther  concerning  the  holy  supper,  or 
con  substantiation  ;  and  to  introduce  the  opinion 
of  Calvin  in  its  stead.  Their  attempt  was  frus- 
trated for  the  present.  The  same  thing  was  again 
attempted  by  Nicholas  Crell,  and  others,  near  the 
end  of  the  century,  but  without  success.  Crell, 
who  was  prime  minister  of  state  of  Saxony,  and 
principal  mover  in  the  business,  suffered  capital 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  251 

punishment,  and  the  theologians  connected  with 
him  were  punished  with  imprisonment  and  exile. 
V.  About  the  close  of  the  century,  Samuel  Hu- 
ber,  who  taught  theology  at  Wittemberg,  stirred 
up  a  new  controversy.  "  Fired  with  hatred  of 
the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  absolute  decrees,  he 
maintained  that  the  whole  human  race  were  from 
eternity  elected  of  God  to  salvation ;  and  he  ac- 
cused his  colleagues,  together  with  all  the  divines 
of  the  Lutheran  church,  of  being  Calvinists,  be- 
cause they  taught  that  those  only  are  elected, 
who,  God  foresaw,  would  die  in  faith.  Learned 
men  are  at  this  day  agreed,  that  Huber  swerved 
from  the  common  Lutheran  doctrine  rather  in 
words  than  in  meaning ;  for  what  the  Lutherans 
maintain  respecting  the  love  of  God,  as  embracing 
the  whole  human  race,  and  excluding  no  one  ab- 
solutely from  eternal  salvation,  this  he  would  ex- 
plain in  a  new  manner,  and  in  new  phraseology. 
But  this  age  having  learned,  from  numerous  ex- 
amples, that  new  phraseology,  and  new  modes  of 
explaining  doctrines,  produced  as  lasting  and  as 
pernicious  disturbance  as  new  errors,  urged  Hu- 
ber to  adopt  the  old  and  the  universal  method  of 
teaching,  in  preference  to  his  own."  Professing 
that  he  was  not  able  to  do  this,  he  was  compelled 
to  relinquish  his  office,  and  go  into  exile.  Thus 
was  the  Lutheran  church  agitated  from  time  to 
time  with  violent  contests,  that  created  much  trou- 
ble and  difficulty  among  themselves,  and  gave 
great  advantage  to  their  enemies. 


CHAPTER  V. 


REFORMED    CHURCH. 

1.  Switzerland.— 2.  Calvin.— 3.  France.— 4.  Scotland.— 5.  Eng- 
land.— 6.  Moravians  and  Waldenses. — 7.  Doctrinal  viewa 
of  the  Reformed.—  8.  Anabaptists,  or  Mennonites. — 9.  Men- 
no  Simonis. — 10.  Division  of  the  Mennonites. — 11.  So- 
cinians. 

1.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  some  account 
of  what  Mosheim  calls  the  Reformed  church. 
This  embraces  the  churches  of  Switzerland,  Eng- 
land,  Scotland,  and  Holland.  Ulrick  Zwingle,  a 
very  acute  and  learned  man,  was  the  leader  of 
the  reformation  in  Switzerland,  which  ho  first 
introduced  at  Zurich,  and  extended  to  other  can- 
tons. He  was  early  assisted  by  John  CEcolam- 
padius,  a  theologian  of  Bale,  and  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  that  age.  They  differed  from 
Luther  in  regard  to  the  sacred  supper,  and  in  de- 
siring a  more  thorough  reformation,  and  a  simpler 
form  of  worship.  The  difference  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  the  supper,  however,  was  the  principal 
matter  of  dispute,  and  which  always  prevented  a 
union,  notwithstanding  the  many  efforts  that  were 
made  to  effect  it.  This  subject  was  much  dis- 
cussed on  both  sides,  and  involved  other  ques- 
tions, that  called  forth  no  little  disputation ; 
namely,  respecting  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ, 
the  communication  of  the  divine  attributes  to  the 
human  nature  of  Christ,  and  the  ubiquity  of 
Christ's  body. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  253 

II.  But  the  man  who  stood  prominent  in  the 
Reformed  church,  for  learning,  talents,  and  piety, 
and  who  did  more  than  any  other  to  model  and 
extend  it,  was  John  Calvin.  He  was  born  at 
Noyon,  in  France,  A.  D.  1509,  and  connected  the 
study  of  civil  law  with  that  of  theology.  He 
came  to  Geneva  at  the  invitation  of  William 
Farel  and  Peter  Viret,  who  were  reformers  there 
before  him.  But  in  1538,  he  was  expelled  by 
the  Council  of  Geneva,  and  resided  several  years 
at  Strasburg,  where  he  lived  on  terms  of  great  in- 
timacy with  Bucer  and  Capito,  and  with  them 
strenuously  defended  the  cause  of  the  reformers 
of  Germany.  In  the  year  1541,  at  the  repeated 
and  pressing  invitations  of  the  Genevans,  he  re- 
turned to  that  place  again,  and  there  he  continued 
his  labours  with  great  persojv^erance,  zeal,  pru- 
dence, and  disinterestedness,  until  his  death,  in 
1564.  He  immediately  set  about  establishing 
the  church  at  Geneva,  according  to  what  he 
esteemed  to  be  the  Scriptural  model.  And  so 
great  was  the  fame  which  he  quickly  acquired, 
that  many  persons  of  rank  and  fortune  were  in- 
duced to  emigrate  from  France,  Italy,  and  other 
countries,  and  settle  at  Geneva  ;  and  great  num- 
bers more  to  travel  to  Geneva,  merely  to  see  and 
hear  so  great  a  man.  In  1558,  he  persuaded  the 
Senate  of  Geneva  to  establish  an  academy,  in 
which  he  and  his  colleague,  Theodore  Beza,  and 
other  men  of  great  erudition  and  high  reputation, 
were  the  teachers.  This  new  academy,  in  a  short 
tjme,  acquired  so  great  fame,  that  students  eagerly 
repaired  to  it  in  great  numbers,  from  England, 
Scotland,  France,  Italy,  and  Germany.  By  means 
of  his  pupils,  Calvin  enlarged  every  where  the 
Reformed  Church,  and  recommended  and  propa- 
22 


254  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

gated  his  own  sentiments  to  more  than  one  nation 
of  Europe. 

Zwingle  assigned  to  civil  magistrates  full  and 
absolute  power  in  matters  of  religion  ;  but  Calvin 
maintained  that  the  church  ought  to  be  free  and 
independent  of  the  civil  magistrate  ;  and  to  govern 
itself  by  means  of  bodies  of  presbyters,  synods, 
and  conventions  of  presbyters,  in  the  n)anner  of 
the  ancient  church.  He  introduced  at  Geneva, 
and  recommended  elsewhere,  throughout  the  Re- 
formed church,  that  form  of  church  government 
which  is  called  Presbyterian,  He  did  not  allow 
of  bishops,  as  a  distinct  grade  of  ministers ;  but 
maintained  that  they  ought  to  be  on  an  entire 
parity,  in  point  of  ministerial  office.  Calvin  dif- 
fered somewhat  from  both  Luther  and  Zwingle, 
in  regard  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Luther  main- 
tained the  corporeal 'presence  of  Christ;  Zwingle, 
that  the  Lord's  Supper  was  nothing  but  a  memo- 
rial of  Christ ;  Calvin  took  a  kind  of  middle 
ground,  and  admitted  a  sort  of  spiritual  presence, 
and  that  divine  grace  was  conferred  on,  and  seal- 
ed to  the  believer,  by  the  sacred  Supper.  But 
though  Calvin  differed  from  Luther  in  regard  to 
consubs'antiation,  yet  these  two  great  Reformers 
entirely  agreed  in  their  doctrinal  belief.  Luther 
carried  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine  decrees  as  far 
as  Calvin  ever  did.  But  as  the  latter  explained, 
defended,  and  promulgated  more  fully  and  more 
ably  than  the  former,  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine 
sovereignty  in  "  the  election  of  grace,"  that  doc- 
trine is  more  closely  and  generally  connected  with 
the  name  of  Calvin  than  with  that  of  the  Saxon 
Reformer,  who,  though  he  believed  it  as  fully,  had 
not  rendered  himself  so  conspicuous  in  its  inves- 
tigation and  defence. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  255 

III.  The  Reformation  made  very  great  progress 
m  France,  although  labouring  under  great  disad- 
vantages, from  internal  wars,  persecutions,  massa- 
cres, and  oppression.  On  the  22d  of  August,  1572, 
commenced  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  so 
called,  because  it  took  place  on  the  eve  of  that  fes- 
tival.— The  .bloody  scene  began  at  midnight,  at 
the  signal  of  tolling  the  palace  bell,  and  continu- 
ed three  days  at  Paris.  Five  hundred  noblemen, 
and  about  six  thousand  other  Protestants  were 
butchered  in  Paris  alone.  Orders  were  despatch- 
ed to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  for  a  similar 
massacre  every  where.  More  than  thirty  thou- 
sand, some  say  seventy  thousand,  and  some  one 
hundred  thousand,  perished  by  the  hands  of  the 
royal  assassins.  And  when  the  news  reached 
Rome,  the  pope  ordered  a  jubilee  to  be  celebrated 
throughout  Christendom  on  the  joyful  occasion. 
The  Protestants  were  weakened,  but  not  destroy- 
ed. They  continued  to  exist  and  increase  under 
great  troubles  and  difficulties,  until,  under  Henry 
IV.  A.  D.  1598,  they  obtained  equal  rights  and 
privileges,  by  a  decree  called  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
The  number  of  Protestants  in  France  during  the 
latter  half  of  this  century,  was  supposed  to  be  from 
a  million,  to  a  million  and  a  half.  They  were  in 
close  fellowship  with  the  church  of  Geneva,  and 
with  the  Flemish  Protestants.  Their  confession 
of  faith  was  composed  by  Calvin. — Their  doctrines 
were  strictly  Calvinistic;  their  worship  very  sim- 
ple, and  almost  without  written  forms;  and  their 
system  of  government  entirely  presbyterian, 

IV.  In  Scotland,  the  Reformation  triumphed  by 
the  instrumentality  of  John  Knox,  a  disciple  of 
Calvin.  He  was  of  a  most  undaunted  spirit,  and 
a  powerful  preacher.     Having  imbibed  his  theolo- 


256  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

gical  views  at  Geneva,  he  established  the  church 
of  Scotland  after  the  same  model,  both  in  doctrine 
and  government :  and  this  model  it  has  strictly 
retained  to  the  present  day. 

V.  In  England,  the  thing  was  otherwise.  The 
Reformation  commenced  in  England  under  Henry 
VIII.  who,  although  a  bigoted  calholic,  quarrelled 
with  the  pope,  and  declared  himself  the  head  of 
the  English  church.  His  son  and  successor,  Ed- 
ward VI.  was  a  friend  of  the  Reformation,  and  un- 
der him  the  church  underwent  a  partial  reform, 
such  as  the  times  would  bear.  This  was  all  re- 
versed under  bloody  Mary.  Many  were  put  to 
death  and  many  fled  into  exile.  Of  these  exiles 
some  settled  at  Geneva,  and  adopted  their  forms 
of  worship.  When  they  had  liberty  to  return,  un- 
der queen  Elizabeth,  they  bi-ought  with  them  all 
their  prejudices  in  favour  of  that  kind  of  church 
government  and  worship  which  they  had  witness- 
ed on  the  continent.  They  could  not  conform  to 
the  liturgy  established  by  queen  Elizabeth,  which 
was  nearly  the  same  with  that  held  by  the  church 
of  England  at  the  present  day.  They  were  there- 
fore called  Non-conformists,  and  also  Puritans,  be- 
cause they  desired  a  pure  and  simple  form  of  wor- 
ship. They  found  fault  with  priestly  garments, 
kneeling  at  the  sacrament,  the  cross  in  baptism, 
confirmation,  god-fathers  and  god-mothers,  and 
similar  thing:s,  as  shreds  and  remnants  of  popery, 
and  as  inconsistent  with  that  simplicity  of  form  of 
worship  taught  in  the  Scriptures.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  church  by  bishops,  archbishops,  &c. 
they  thought  not  authorized  by  apostolical  prac- 
tice and  precept.  But  this  became  a  much  great- 
er matter  of  grievance,  from  the  year  1588,  when 
Richard  Bancroft,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Can- 


SIXTEENTH    CENTUKY.  257 

terbury,  first  ventured  publicly  to  affirm  that  bish- 
ops are  an  order  superior  to  that  of  presbyters,  not 
by  nnere  human  appointment,  but  by  the  will  of  God 
— -jure  divino.  This  sentiment  meeting  the  ap- 
probation of  great  numbers,  the  consequence  was, 
that  they  were  not  thought  to  be  properly  induct- 
ed into  the  sacred  office,  who  had  not  been  ordain- 
ed by  a  bishop,  and  therefore,  had  no  right  to 
preach  and  administer  the  ordinances  ;  and  that 
those  churches  that  had  not  episcopal  ordination 
among  them,  were  not  true  churches.  This  schism 
in  the  English  church  between  the  Conformists  and 
Non-conformists  or  Puritans,  and  which  contin- 
ues down  to  the  present  day,  was  the  cause  of 
much  evil  and  disturbance  in  that  nation.  The 
Puritans  were  very  numerous,  and  suffered  much 
persecution  under  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  publish- 
ed by  queen  Elizabeth.  They,  however,  disa- 
greed among  themselves.  The  most  of  them  were 
Presbyterians ;  some  were  Independents,  and 
some  Baptists.  The  Independents,  whose  histo- 
ry belongs  chiefly  to  the  next  century,  were  the 
descendants  of  the  followers  of  Robert  Brown, 
who  in  this  century  were  called  Brownists. 

VI.  In  the  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  the 
Protestants  assumed  the  name  of  Reformed  ;  and 
modelled  their  church  after  the  Genevan  par- 
tern. — The  Bohemian  Brethren,  or  Moravians 
of  Poland,  who  were  the  descendants  of  the 
better  sort  of  Hussites,  held  frequent  corres- 
pondence with  Luther,  soliciting  friendship  and 
alliance.  Nor  did  Luther  and  his  friends  find 
anything  very  censurable,  either  in  their  doctrine 
or  their  discipline.  But  they  afterwards  inclined  to 
the  Swiss,  and  retaining  their  own  form  of  church 
government,  embraced  the  doctrine  of  the  Reform- 
22* 


253  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ed.  The  descendants  of  the  Waldenses,  who  lived 
shut  up  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  were  led  by 
their  proximity  to  the  French  and  Genevans,  to 
embrace  their  doctrines  and  worship.  Yet  they 
retained  not  a  few  of  their  ancient  rules  of  disci- 
pline, so  late  as  the  year  1630.  But  in  this  year, 
the  greater  part  of  the  Waldenses  were  swept  off 
by  pestilence  ;  and  their  new  teachers,  whom  they 
obtained  from  France,  regulated  all  their  affairs 
according  to  the  pattern  of  the  French  Reformed 
church. 

VII.  "  The  Reformed,"  says  Dr.  Mosheim,  «  if 
we  restrict  this  appellation  to  those  who  approve 
the  sentiments  of  Calvin,  differ  from  the  Luther- 
ans, in  regard  to  three  subjects. — 1.  The  doctrine 
of  the  holy  supper,  in  which  the- Lutherans  say, 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  truly,  though  in 
an  inexplicable  manner,  presented  to  both  the  pi- 
ous and  ungodly  ;  while  the  Reformed  suppose, 
that  the  human  nature  of  Christ  is  present  only 
by  the  symbols  of  it.  Yet  they  do  not  all  explain 
their  doctrine  in  the  same  way.  2.  The  doctrine 
of  the  eternal  decrees  of  God,  in  regard  to  the  sal- 
vation of  men,  the  ground  of  which  the  Luther- 
ans  suppose  to  be  the  faith  or  unbelief  of  men 
in  Christ,  foreseen  by  God,  from  eternity ;  but  the 
Reformed  suppose  it  to  be  the  free  and  sovereign 
good  pleasure  of  God.  3.  Certain  rites  and  insti- 
tutions, which  the  Reformed  think  have  a  tend- 
ency to  superstition  ;  but  which  the  Lutherans 
think,  are  partly  sufferable  and  partly  useful  to 
Christians.  Such  are  images  in  churches,  sacred 
garments  for  the  clergy,  the  private  confession  of 
sins,  the  use  of  small  circular  pieces  of  bread, 
[wafers,]  such  as  were  anciently  distributed  in  the 
holy  supper  the  formula  of  exorcism,  as  it  is  call- 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  259 

ed,  in  the  sacrament  of  baptism  ;  and  some  others. 
These  the  Reformed  would  have  to  be  abrogated ; 
because  they  think  religious  worship  should  be 
restored  to  its  primitive  simplicity,  and  the  ad- 
ditions to  it  should  be  wholly  struck  off." 

That  all  the  protestant  divines  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  or  with  very  few  exceptions,  both  in 
England  and  upon  the  continent,  were,  in  the  be- 
ginning, of  one  mind,  about  the  doctrines  of  grace 
and  of  faith,  cannot  be  denied.  And  hence  the 
Articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  are  truly  Cal- 
vinistic.  But  toward  the  end  of  queen  Elizabeth's 
reign,  there  arose  a  party  which  were  first  for 
softening,  and  then  for  overthrowing,  the  received 
opinions  concerning  predestination,  perseverance, 
free-will,  effectual  grace,  and  the  extent  of  Christ's 
atonement.  The  clergy  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
began  to  lean  towards  the  notions  concerning 
these  intricate  points,  which  Arminius  propagated 
some  time  after  this  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  Puritans  adhered  rigorously  to  the  system  of 
Calvin.  Several  Episcopal  doctors  remained  at- 
tached to  the  same  system,  and  all  these  abettors 
of  Calvinism,  whether  Episcopal  or  Presbyterian, 
were  called  doctrinal  puritans. 

VIII.  I  now  proceed  to  give  some  account  of 
the  Anabaptists  or  Mennonites.  This  sect,  al- 
though diversified  among  themselves,  includes  all 
who  deny  the  right  of  infants  to  baptism.  They 
were  called  Anabaptists,  because  they  baptized 
over  again  those  who  had  been  baptized  in  infancy  * 
and  Mennonites,  from  Menno,  who  was  their  prin- 
cipal leader,  and  who  reduced  the  party  to  some- 
thing like  regular  form.  The  origin  of  this  sect 
is  involved  in  much  obscurity.  "The  modern 
Mennonites,"  says  Dr.    Mosheim,    "  affirm,  that 


260  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

their  predecessors  were  the  descendants  of  those 
Waldenses,  who  were  oppressed  by  the  tyranny 
of  the  papists;  and  that  they  were  a  nnosl  pure 
offspring,  and  most  averse  from  any  inclination 
towards  sedition,  as  well  as  from  all  fanatical 
views.  On  the  contrary,  their  adversaries  con- 
tend, that  they  are  descended  from  those  turbulent 
and  furious  Anabaptists,  who  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury involved  Germany,  Holland,  Switzerland, 
and  especially  Westphalia,  in  so  many  calamities 
and  civil  wars,  but  that  being  terrified  by  the 
dreadful  fate  of  their  associates,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Menno  Simonis  especially,  they  have 
gradually  assumed  a  more  sober  character.  After 
duly  examining  the  whole  subject,  with  impartial- 
ity, I  conceive  that  neither  statement  is  altogether 
true.  In  the  first  place,  I  believe  the  Mennonites 
are  not  altogether  in  the  wrong,  when  they  boast 
of  a  descent  from  those  Waldenses,  Petrobrussians, 
and  others,  who  are  usually  styled  the  witnesses 
for  the  truth  before  Luther.  Prior  to  the  age  of 
Luther,  there  lay  concealed  in  almost  every 
country  of  Europe,  but  especially  in  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,  very  many 
persons,  in  whose  minds  was  deeply  rooted  that 
principle,  which  the  Waldensians,  the  WicklitTites, 
and  the  Hussites  maintained,  some  more  covertly 
and  others  more  openly  ;  namely,  that  the  king- 
dom which  Christ  set  up  on  earth,  or  the  visible 
church,  is  an  assembly  of  holy  persons;  and 
ought  therefore  to  be  entirely  free,  not  only  from 
ungodly  persons  and  sinners,  but  from  all  institu- 
tions of  human  device  against  ungodliness.  This 
principle  lay  at  the  foundation,  and  was  the  source 
of  all  that  was  new  and  singular  in  the  religion  of 
the  Mennonites ;    and  the  greatest  part  of  their 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  261 

lingular  opinions,  as  is  well  attested,  were  ap- 
proved some  centuries  before  Luther's  time,  by 
those  who  had  such  views  of  the  nature  of  the 
church  of  Christ." 

To  this  account  of  the  Mennonites,  I  must  add 
Dr.  Murdock's  note. 

"  That  the  Mennonites,  as  being  one  of  those 
Protestant  sects  which  renounced  the  Romish  reli- 
gion in  the  sixteenth  century,  resembled  very  much 
the  VValdenses,  the  Wickliffites,  and  the  Hussites, 
those  early  revolters  from  the  Romish  worship,  is 
true.  And  it  may  therefore  be  justly  said,  that 
*the  greatest  part  of  their  singular  opinions,' 
meaning  those  in  which  they  differed  from  the 
Romish  church,  '  were  approved  some  centuries 
before  Luther's  time.'  And  this,  I  think,  must 
be  all  that  Dr.  Mosheim  intended  to  say.  For, 
that  in  most  of  the  points  in  which  they  appeared 
singular  to  the  Protestants,  they  bore  a  nearer 
resemblance  to  the  proper  Waldenses,  the  Wick- 
liffites, and  the  Hussites,  than  the  other  protes- 
tants,  or  than  the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed 
did,  is  very  far  from  being  true.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  a  well  known  historical  fact,  that  in  the  six- 
teenth century  the  genuine  descendants  of  the  old 
Waldensians,  Wickliffites,  and  Hussites,  who 
were  numerous  in  France,  England,  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  &c.,  readily  united  with  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  communities,  and  at  length  became 
absorbed  in  them  ;  and  that  very  few,  if  any  of 
them  ever  manifested  a  preference  for  the  Men- 
nonites, or  for  any  of  the  Antipsedobaptist  sects 
of  that  age.  The  history  of  the  Reformation,  in 
all  the  countries  where  the  ancient  sects  were 
found,  fully  establishes  this  fact,  which  is  so 
adverse  to  the  supposition  of  a  legitimate  descent 


262  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

of  the  Mennonites  from  the  pure  VValdenses 
The  first  Mennonites  were  not  persons  who  had 
before  borne  the  name  of  Waldensians ;  nor  did 
they  originate*  either  in  or  near  the  countries 
where  the  Waldensians  in  that  age  resided.  And 
if  we  endeavour  to  trace  the  history  of  that  grand 
peculiarity  of  all  Mennonites,  their  confining 
baptism  to  adult  believers,  and  rejecting  infant 
baptism  altogether,  we  shall  find  that  at  the  time 
Menno  first  embraced  it,  it  existed  among  the 
numerous  German  Anabaptists,  but  not  among 
the  Waldenses  of  France  or  Bohemia,  who  were 
then  universally  believers  in  infant  baptism,  and 
were  in  fraternal  union  with  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches.  These  Waldensian  Psedo- 
baptisls,  moreover,  declared  that  they  held  the 
same  belief  which  their  fathers  had  maintained  for 
several  centuries ;  and  they  appealed  to  their  old 
books  to  make  good  their  assertions.  See  Jo. 
Paul  Perrin's  History  of  the  Waldenses  ;  P.  i.  B. 
i.  ch.  iv.  p.  15.  of  the  English  translation  ;  and 
P.  iii.  B.  iii.  ch.  iv.  p.  99.  Nor  does  ecclesiastical 
history  appear  to  me  to  disprove  the  truth  of  this 
assertion.  There  were  indeed,  various  mystical 
sects,  tinctured  more  or  less  with  Manichoean 
views,  in  the  twelfth  and  following  centuries,  who 
rejected  all  water-baptism,  on  much  the  same 
grounds  as  the  Quakers  still  do ;  and  some  of 
these  assailed  infant  baptism  especially,  as  being 
peculiarly  unsuitable  and  absurd.  There  is  also 
pretty  good  evidence,  that  early  in  the  twelfth 
century,  Peter  Bruis  and  his  successor  Henry, 
with  their  followers,  the  Petrobrussians  and  Hen- 
ricians,  did  at  first  reject  infant  baptism,  without 
discarding  all  baptism.  But  soon  after,  Peter 
Waldo  arose,  and  gave  birth  to  the  proper  Wal 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY,  263 

densians  ;  and  we  hear  no  more  of  the  Petrobrus- 
sians  and  Henricians.  They  probably  gave  up 
their  opposition  to  infant  baptism.  See  Wall's 
Hist,  of  Infant  Baptism,  P.  II.  ch.  7."* 

Before  Menno,  by  his  great  and  laborious  efforts, 
had  brought  the  Anabaptists  to  some  degree  of  or- 
der and  regularity,  they  were  guilty  of  very  great 
disturbances  and  outrages  in  many  parts.  At 
Munster,  a  city  of  Westphalia,  they  assembled  in 
1533,  under  the  guidance  of  illiterate  men,  John 
Matthsei,  John  Bockholdt,  a  tailor  of  Leyden, 
Gerhard,  and  some  others,  where  they  committed 
deeds  that  would  scarcely  be  credible,  were  they 
not  so  well  attested.  They  persuaded  the  people 
that  their  blessed  heavenly  Jerusalem  was  about 
to  be  established  at  Munster,  and  would  thence 
be  extended  to  other  places.  John  Bockholdt  was 
created  king  and  lawgiver  to  this  celestial  republic. 

"  The  scenes  of  violence,  tumult,  and  sedition," 
says  Dr.  Maclaine,  "  that  were  exhibited  in  Hol- 
land by  this  odious  tribe  were  also  terrible.  They 
formed  the  design  of  reducing  the  city  of  Leyden 
to  ashes,  but  were  happily  prevented  and  severely 
punished.  John  of  Leyden,  the  Anabaptist  king 
of  Munster,  had  taken  it  into  his  head,  that  God 
had  made  him  a  present  of  the  cities  of  Amster- 
dam, Deventer,  and  Wesel  ;  in  consequence  there- 
of, he  sent  bishops  to  those  places,  to  preach  his 
gospel  of  sedition  and  carnage.  About  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  1535,  twelve  anabaptists,  of  whom 
five  were  women,  assembled  at  midnight  in  a  pri- 
vate house  at  Amsterdam.  One  of  them,  who  was 
a  tailor  by  profession,  fell  into  a  trance,  and  after 
having  preached  and  prayed  for  the  space  of  four 

*  See  Appendix. 


264  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

hours,  stripped  himself,  threw  his  clothes  into  the 
fire,  and  commanded  all  the  assembly  to  do  the 
same,  in  which  he  was  obeyed  without  the  least 
reluctance.  He  then  ordered  them  to  follow  him 
through  the  streets,  which  they  accordingly  did, 
howling  and  bawling  out.  Wo  !  wo  !  the  wrath  of 
God  !  wo  to  Babylon  !  When,  after  being  seized 
and  brought  before  the  magistrates,  clothes  were 
offered  them,  they  refused  them  obstinately,  and 
cried  aloud,  We  are  the  naked  truth.  When  they 
were  brought  to  the  scaffold,  they  sung  and  danced, 
and  discovered  all  the  marks  of  enthusiastic  phren- 
sy. — These  tumults  were  followed  by  a  regular 
and  deep  laid  conspiracy,  formed  by  Van  Geelen 
(an  envoy  of  the  mock  king  of  Munster,  who  had 
made  a  very  considerable  number  of  proselytes) 
against  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam,  with  a  de- 
sign to  wrest  the  government  of  that  city  out 
of  their  hands.  This  incendiary  marched  his 
fanatical  troop  to  the  town-house  on  the  day  ap- 
pointed, drums  beating,  colours  flying,  and  fixed 
there  his  head  quarters.  He  was  attacked  by  the 
burghers,  assisted  by  some  regular  troops,  and 
headed  by  several  of  the  burgomasters  of  the  city. 
After  an  obstinate  resistance,  he  was  surrounded, 
with  his  whole  troop,  who  were  put  to  death  in  the 
severest  and  most  dreadful  manner,  to  serve  as  an 
example  to  the  other  branches  of  the  sect,  who 
were  exciting  commotions  of  a  like  nature  in  Fries- 
land,  Groningen,  and  other  provinces  and  cities  of 
the  Netherlands." 

But  it  would  seem  that  Menno,  and  many  oth- 
ers of  the  sect,  were  of  a  different  character  from 
these  wild  fanatics,  and  wholly  disapproved  of  their 
violent  and  lawless  proceedings. 

IX.  Menno  Simonis,  of  Friesland,  who  had  been 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  265 

a  popish  priest,  in  the  year  1536,  openly  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Anabaptists,  and  in  the  following 
year,  by  special  request,  consented  to  assume  the 
functions  of  their  religious  teacher.  From  this 
period  to  the  end  of  his  life,  or  for  about  twenty, 
five  years,  he  travelled  with  his  wife  and  children, 
amidst  perpetual  sufferings,  and  daily  perils  of  his 
life,  over  very  many  regions  of  country  ;  first  in 
West  Friesland,  the  territory  of  Groningen,  and 
East  Friesland,  then  in  Guelderland,  Holland, 
Brabant,  Westphalia,  and  the  German  shores  along 
the  Baltic,  as  far  as  Livonia  ;  and  gathered  an  im- 
mense number  of  followers,  so  that  he  was  almost 
the  common  father  and  bishop  of  all  the  Anabap- 
tists, and  may  justly  be  considered  .the  founder  of 
the  flourishing  sect  that  has  continued  down  to  our 
times.  Menno  condemned  the  expectation  of  a 
new  kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  be  set  up  by  vio- 
lence :  he  condemned  the  hope  of  a  perfect  church 
to  be  established  by  an  extraordinary  effusion  of 
the  Holy  Spirit ;  he  condemned  the  licentiousness 
of  polygamy  and  divorce,  which  some  of  the  Ana- 
baptists held  ;  and  would  not  tolerate  those  who 
believed  that  the  Holy  Ghost  descended  into  the 
minds  of  many,  as  at  the  first  propagation  of  the 
Gospel,  and  manifested  his  presence  by  miracles, 
prophecies,  divine  dreams  and  visions.  At  the 
same  time  he  retained  the  doctrines  commonly  re- 
ceived among  the  Anabaptists,  in  relation  to  the 
baptism  of  infants  ;  the  millennium  or  one  thou- 
sand years'  reign  of  Christ  upon  earth  ;  the  ex- 
clusion of  magistrates  from  the  Christian  church  ; 
the  abolition  of  war ;  the  prohibition  of  oaths  by 
our  Saviour  ;  and  the  vanity,  as  well  as  the  per- 
niciousness,  of  human  science.  These  doctrines, 
however,  he  so  explained  and  modified  as  made 
23 


2GG  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

them  not  unlike  the  doctrines  commonly  held  by 
Protestants,  and  removed  all  their  dangerous  and 
offensive  features. 

X.  The  Mennonites  afterwards  divided  into  two 
parties,  one  called  Flemings  or  Flandrians,  and 
the  other  VVaterlandians.  The  former  held  and 
observed  more  strictly  than  the  others,  both  the  an- 
cient doctrines,  and  the  morals  and  discipline  of 
the  Anabaptists  :  the  latter  were  more  lax,  departed 
from  the  original  opinions  and  discipline,  and  ap- 
proached nearer  to  other  Protestant  churches. 
Some  of  this  denomination  administer  baptism  at 
the  present  day  by  pouring  or  sprinkling,  and 
plead  for  it  the  authority  of  Menno  himself. 

"  Those  among  the  English,"  says  Dr.  Mosheim, 
"  who  reject  the  baptism  of  infants,  are  not  called 
Anabaptists,  but  Baptists.  It  is  probable  that  these 
Baptists  originated  from  the  Germans  and  the 
Dutch  ;  and  that  they  all  once  held  the  same  sen- 
timents with  the  Mennonites.  But  they  are  now 
divided  into  two  general  classes  ;  the  one  called 
General  Baptists,  or  Remonstrants,  because  they 
believe  that  God  has  excluded  no  man  from  salva- 
tion by  any  sovereign  decree  ;*  the  other  are  call- 
ed Particular,  or  Calvinistic  Baptists,  because  they 

*Dr.  Mosheim,  like  the  most  of  those  who  dislike  what  is 
called  Calvinism,  shows  here  a  facility  in  misrepresenting  it.  The 
Baptist  Remonstrants,  he  says,  "  believe  that  God  has  excluded 
no  man  from  salvation  by  any  sovereign  decree,"'  leaving  it  to 
be  inferred,  that  the  "  Calvinistic  Baptists,"  and  the  "  Calvinists  " 
generally,  hold  the  precisely  opposite  view.  It  is  needless  to  say 
how  false  the  implication  is,  or  to  spend  'ime  in  showing  the  ob- 
vious difference  between  believing  that  God  has  excluded  some 
men  from  salvation  by  a  sovereign  decree,m\A  believing  that  he 
has  "  been  pleased  according  to  the  unsearchable  counsel  of 
his  own  will  ...to  pass  by"  a  part  of  our  rebeUious  race, 
•'  and  to  ordain  them  to  dishonour  and  wrath  for  their  sin,  to 
the  praise  of  his  glorious  justice."  Con.  of  Faith,  eh.  iii.  $  7. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  267 

agree  very  nearly  with  the  Calvinists,  or  Pre-sby- 
terians,  in  their  religious  sentiments. 

The  Particular  Baptists  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous,  and  have  receded  so  far  from  the  opin- 
ions of  their  progenitors,  that  they  have  ahuost 
nothing  in  common  with  the  ancient  Anabaptists, 
except  that  they  baptize  none  but  adults,  and  ad- 
minister the  ordinance  by  total  immersion.  Their 
churches  are  organized  on  the  congregational  or 
independent  plan,  and  they  allow  professors  of 
religion  to  take  an  oath,  bear  arms,  and  fill  public 
civil  offices  when  required.  The  General*  Baptists 
consist  chiefly  of  illiterate  persons  of  low  condi- 
tion ;  for,  like  the  ancient  Mennonites,  they  de- 
spise learning.  Their  religious  creed  is  very  gen- 
eral and  indefinite,  so  that  they  tolerate  persons 
of  all  sorts,  even  Arians  and  Socinians,  and  do 
not  reject  any  one,  provided  he  profess  to  be  a 
Christian,  and  to  receive  the  Holy  Scriptures  as 
the  rule  of  his  faith  and  practice  in  religion. 

XI.  A  brief  notice  of  the  sect  of  the  Socinians 
will  conclude  what  I  have  to  say  on  the  sixteenth 
century.  This  sect  derives  its  name  from  Loelius 
and  Faustus  Socinus.  Lselius  was  the  older,  but 
being  a  man  of  a  mild  and  gentle  spirit,  he  did 
not  divulge  his  religious  sentiments,  except  in  let- 
ters to  his  friends.  He  died  at  Zurich  in  1562, 
not  yet  forty  years  old,  professing  himself  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Swiss  church,  having  adopted  the  Hel- 
vetic Confession.  But  his  nephew  and  heir,  Faus 
tus  Socinus,  a  man  of  less  learning,  but  more 
boldness  and  resolution,  is  said  to  have  drawn 
from  his  writings  his  real  sentiments  on  religion, 
and  by  publishing  them,  to  have  gathered  the  sect. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  Reformation,  before  So- 
cinus, there  were  a  number  of  persons  who  denied 


268  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

divine  honours  to  Jesus  Christ.  Such  was  Lewis 
Hetzer,  a  name  famous  among  the  vagrant  Ana- 
baptists, and  who  was  belieaded  at  Constance  in 
1529.  And  it  is  said  that  there  were  many  of 
that  sect  of  like  sentiments,  John  Campanus,  at 
Witteml)erg  and  elsewhere,  propagated  the  doc- 
trine, that  the  Son  of  God  is  inferior  to  the  Father, 
and  revived  the  ancient  Arian  heresy.  He  was 
committed  to  prison  by  the  Catholics  at  Cleves, 
and  kept  in  confinement  twenty-six  years.  One 
Claudius  also  excited  great  commotion,  about  the 
year  1530.  He  positively  denied  three  persons 
in  the  Godhead,  and  maintained  that  the  beginning 
of  John's  Gospel  had  been  falsitied.  He  was  im- 
prisoned at  Strasburg,  and  then  banished.  But 
no  one  gave  more  trouble  and  alarm  on  this  head, 
than  Michael  Servetus,  a  man  of  no  ordinary 
genius,  and  of  extensive  knowledge.  He  publish- 
ed several  books  on  the  Trinity,  in  which  he  vio- 
lently assailed  the  doctrine  held  by  the  great  body 
of  Christians  on  that  subject.  After  having  tra- 
velled much,  and  passed  through  various  scenes, 
he  fixed  his  residence  at  Vienne,  a  town  in  France, 
where,  in  1553,  he  secretly  published  his  great 
work,  entitled  Restitutio  Cliristianismi,  (a  Res- 
toration of  Christianity.)  Many  things  seemed  to 
favour  his  designs ;  genius,  learning,  eloquence, 
courage,  pertinacity,  a  show  of  piety,  and  lastly, 
numerous  friends  and  patrons,  in  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy,  whom  he  had  conciliated  by  his 
natural  and  acquired  endowments.  He  was  brought 
before  the  Inquisition  at  Vienne,  but  made  his 
escape  ;  and  in  passing  through  Switzerland,  lay 
sometime  concealed  at  Geneva.  When  about  to 
depart,  he  was  discovered  by  Calvin  himself,  who 
gave  notice  immediately  to  the  government.    They 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  269 

apprehended  him,  and  after  a  regular  trial  and 
conviction  of  heresy,  according  to  the  laws  then 
in  force,  and  the  spirit  and  practice  of  that  age,  he 
was  condemned  to  be  burnt  alive,  Calvin,  and 
other  ministers  of  Geneva,  interceded  for  a  milder 
death  ;  but  the  court  would  not  yield.  "  A  better 
fate,"  says  Mosheim,  "  was  merited  by  this  man 
of  uncommon  genius  and  great  learning ;  yet  he 
laboured  under  no  small  moral  defects,  for  he  was 
beyond  all  measure  arrogant,  and  also  ill-tempered, 
contentious,  unyielding,  and  a  semi-fanatic." 

As  the  favourers  of  these  views  were  so  vigi- 
lantly watched  both  by  papists  and  protestants, 
many  of  them  retired  to  Poland,  where  they  could 
enjoy  greater  liberty  of  opinion,  as  did  also  many 
of  the  Anabaptists  for  the  same  reason.  "  Here 
they  at  first  cautiously  disclosed  their  views,  being 
timid  and  doubtful  what  would  be  the  issue. 
Hence,  for  a  number  of  years,  they  lived  inter- 
mixed with  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  who 
had  acquired  a  firm  establishment  in  Poland ;  nor 
were  they  excluded  from  their  communion  in  wor- 
ship, or  from  their  deliberative  bodies.  But  after 
acquiring  the  friendship  of  the  nobles  and  the  opu- 
lent, they  ventured  to  act  more  courageously,  and 
to  attack  openly  the  common  views  of  Christians. 
Hence  originated,  first,  violent  contests  with  the 
Reformed,  with  whom  they  were  principally  con- 
nected, the  issue  of  which  at  last  was,  that  in  the 
Synod  of  Petrikow,  A.  D.  1565,  they  were  re- 
quired to  secede,  and  to  form  themselves  into  a 
separate  community."  These  founders  of  the  So- 
cinian  sect,  ho%vever,  mostly  professed  Arian  sen- 
timents respecting  the  Divine  nature  ;  representing 
the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  to  be  persons  begot- 
ten by  the  one  God,  the  Father,  and  inferior  to 
23* 


270  KCCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

hiin.  But  they  were  much  divided  in  opinion 
among  themselves,  and  much  harassed  from  with- 
out, until  John  Sieniensky,  the  waiwode  of  Podo- 
lia,  granted  them  a  residence  in  his  new  town  of 
Racow,  built  for  them  in  1569.  The  name  of  So- 
cinians  was  not  yet  known.  Those  who  after- 
wards bore  that  name,  were  then  usually  called  by 
the  Pole3,  Anabaptists  ;  because  they  admitted 
none  to  baptism  in  their  assemblies  but  adults,  and 
were  accustomed  to  rebaptize  such  as  came  over 
to  them  from  other  communities.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  Faustus  Socinus  came  among  them,  and 
gained  such  ascendency,  that  he  brought  the  whole 
Unitarian  people  to  surrender  to  those  opinions  of 
his,  which  they  had  not  before  received,  and  to 
coalesce,  and  become  one  people.  Under  the 
guidance  of  so  respectable  a  leader,  they  soon  rose 
to  distinction  and  honour,  by  the  accession  of 
great  numbers  of  all  orders,  among  whom  were 
many  persons  of  noble  birth,  of  opulence,  learn- 
incr,  and  influence.  The  Unitarian  religion  being 
thus  new  modelled,  and  made  almost  a  new  sys- 
tem, required  a  new  Confession.  This  was  drawn 
up  by  Socinus  himself,  and  called  the  Racovian 
Catechism.  They  established  a  flourishing  school 
at  Racow,  and  published  many  books.  Their 
authors  were  learned  and  able  men,  and  were 
termed  Poloni  Fratres,  or  Polish  Brethren. 

Although  the  Socinians  profess  to  believe  that 
all  knowledge  of  divine  things  must  be  derived 
from  the  Bible,  yet  they  hold  that  the  sense  of 
Scripture  is  to  be  interpreted  in  conformity  with 
the  dictates  of  right  reason.  It  is  a  fundamental 
maxim  of  the  whole  Socinian  Theology,  that  no- 
thing must  be  admitted  as  a  divine  doctrme,  but 
what  the  human  mind  can  fully  understand  and 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  271 

comprehend ;  and  whatever  the  Holy  Scriptures 
teach  concerning  the  nature  of  God,  his  counsels 
and  purposes,  and  the  way  of  salvation,  must  be 
filed  down  and  polished,  by  art  and  reason,  till  it 
shall  agree  with  the  capacities  of  our  minds. 
They  intimate,  and  sometimes  plainly  express, 
that  the  inspired  writers  frequently  slipped,  both 
through  defects  of  memory,  and  of  capacity;  that 
they  express  their  ideas  obscurely ;  that  they 
use  extravagant  and  hyperbolical  expressions ; 
and  therefore  must  be  made  intelligible  by  the  aid 
of  reason  and  sagacity.  The  system  of  Socinus, 
Dr.  Mosheim  sums  up  in  the  following  words  : — 
"  God  is  indeed  vastly  more  perfect  than  men  are, 
yet  he  is  not  altogether  unlike  them :  by  that 
power  with  which  he  controls  all  nature,  he 
caused  Jesus  Christ,  an  extraordinary  man^  to 
be  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary:  this  man  he  caught 
up  to  heaven,  imbued  him  with  a  portion  of  his 
own  energy,  which  is  called  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
with  a  full  knowledge  of  his  will ;  and  then  sent 
him  back  to  this  world,  that  he  might  promulgate 
to  mankind  a  new  rule  of  life,  more  perfect  than 
the  old  one,  and  might  evince  the  truth  of  his 
doctrine  by  his  life  and  his  death.  Those  who 
obey  the  voice  of  this  divine  teacher,  (and  all  can 
obey  it,  if  they  are  so  disposed,)  being  clad  in 
other  bodies,  shall  hereafter  inhabit  the  blessed 
abode  where  God  resides:  those  who  do  other- 
wise being  consumed  by  exquisite  torments,  shall 
at  length  sink  into  entire  annihilation." 


272  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 


CENTURY    XVII. 

1.  Missions  of  the  Roman  church. — 2.  China.— 3.  Japan.— 
4.  Protestant  Missions. — 5.  Popish  Missions  in  Africa  and 
South  America. — 6.  Protestant  Missions  in  North  America. 
— 7.  Infidehiy.  —  8.  Learning.  —  9.  Popes. —  10.  Efibrts  of 
Rome  to  reclaim  Protestants. — 11.  Abyssinia — 12.  Monks. 
13.  Jesuits.— 14.  Dominicans  and  Jansenists. — 15.  Quietists. 
— 16.  Lutheran  church. — 17.  Syncretism. — 18.  Pietism. — 19. 
Reformed  churches. — 20.  Arminian  system. — 21.  Synod  of 
Dort.  —  22.  England.  —  23.  Arminians.  —  24.  Quakers. — ^25. 
English  Baptists. — 26.  Socinians- 

I.  Great  efforts  were  made  in  this  century  by 
the  Roman  pontiffs  to  propagate  Christianity,  and 
to  establish  their  power  and  authority  in  foreign 
lands,  and  among  the  heathen.  In  the  year  1622, 
was  established  at  Rome,  by  Gregory  XV.,  the 
famous  Congregation  for  Fropagating  the  Faith, 
commonly  called  the  Propaganda,  which  is  fur- 
nished with  very  extensive  revenues.  This  body, 
consisting  chiefly  of  cardinals,  has  for  its  object 
the  propagation  of  the  Romish  religion  in  all 
parts  of  the  world ;  and,  by  its  immense  reve- 
nues, is  able  to  make  almost  unlimited  expendi- 
tures for  this  purpose.  To  this  institution  was 
added  another,  by  Urban  VIII.,  in  1627,  called 
the  College  or  Seminary  for  Propagating  the 
Faith;  in  which  young  men  from  all  nations 
are  carefully  educated,  to  become  preachers  of 
Christianity  in  foreign  countries.  The  Congre- 
gation of  priests  for  foreign  missions^  was  insti- 
tuted by  the  royal  authority  in  France,  in  the 
year  1663;  and  also  the  Parisian  Seminary  for 
missions  to  foreign  nations,  was  founded  by  cer- 


SEVENTEKNTH    CENTURY.  273 

tain  French  bishops  and  theologians.  From  this 
Seminary  go  forth  the  apostolic  vicars  of  Siam, 
Tonquin,  and  Cochin  China,  the  bishops  of  Baby- 
lon, and  the  apostolic  vicars  of  Persia,  and  other 
missionaries  to  the  Asiatic  nations. 

Between  the  Jesuits  and  the  monks  of  other  or- 
ders, that  were  sent  out  on  these  foreign  missions, 
there  was  considerable  difference  of  opinion,  and 
disputation,  respecting  the  proper  manner  of  con- 
verting the  heathen.  The  Jesuits  thought  it  pro- 
per  to  practise  every  sort  of  art  and  deception,  in 
order  to  accomplish  their  purpose ;  and  their  con- 
verts were  permitted  to  retain  most  of  their  pagan 
rites  and  superstitions,  with  only  a  slight  accom- 
modation to  Christianity  ;  and  were  only  required 
to  assume  the  name  of  Christian  by  submitting  to 
baptism,  and  other  ceremonies  of  the  Romish 
church.  The  natural  propensities  of  the  people 
they  complied  with,  as  far  as  possible,  and  care- 
fully avoided  whatever  was  opposed  to  them. 
This  course  was  condemned  by  the  other  orders, 
as  tending  wholly  to  subvert  .the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  but  such  was  the  power  and  influence  of 
the  Jesuits,  that  neither  they  nor  the  Roman  pon- 
tiffs themselves,  were  able  to  correct  all  that  they 
saw,  and  acknowledged  to  be  wrong  in  that  pow- 
erful sect. 

By  means  of  the  missionary  institutions  above 
named,  and  the  missionaries  sent  out  and  sus- 
tained by  them,  the  name  and  religion  of  papal 
Christians  were  sounded  over  nearly  all  Asia  in 
this  century.  Nearly  all  the  parts  of  India,  espe-  ^ 
cially  those  formerly  subject  to  the  Portuguese, 
till  they  were  driven  out  by  the  Dutch,  received 
some  sparks  of  light,  though  involved  in  much 
obscurity,  by  the  labours  chiefly  of  the  Jesuits. 


274  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORr. 

But  no  mission  to  these  nations  was  more  noticed 
or  more  successful,  than  that  to  Madura,  a  king- 
dom situated  in  the  central  parts  of  India,  on  this 
side  the  Ganges.  This  mission  was  established 
by  an  Italian  Jesuit,  by  the  name  of  Robert  de 
Nobili ;  who  feigned  himself  a  Brahmin,  come 
from  a  distant  country,  professing  to  reform  the 
corruptions  of  their  own  religion ;  and,  by  stain- 
ing his  face,  and  adopting  a  very  austere  and 
painful  mode  of  life,  he  persuaded  the  credulous 
people  to  believe  him.  This  mission  prospered 
wonderfully,  until  it  is  said  to  have  embraced  a 
community  almost  numberless.  But  in  1744, 
Benedict  XIV.,  who  did  not  approve  of  this  crafty 
method  of  the  Jesuits  in  converting  the  nations,  by 
his  mandate,  prostrated  all  these  once  flourishing 
missions. 

The  Jesuits  first  introduced  papal  Christianity 
into  Siam,  Tonquin,  and  Cochin  China ;  and  vast 
multitudes  in  these  nations  are  said  to  have 
eagerly  embraced  it.  But  when  Alexander  VII., 
m  the  year  1658,  thought  proper  to  place  bishops 
over  the  new  church,  and  for  this  purpose  sent 
over  certain  French  priests,  clothed  with  authority 
from  himself,  the  Jesuits,  who  can  bear  no  supe- 
riors, and  scarcely  any  equals,  treated  them  with 
great  contumely  and  abuse,  and  would  not  suffer 
them  to  enter  their  harvest.  Hence  arose  in  the 
court  of  Rome  a  protracted  contest  ;  the  issue  of 
which  plainly  showed,  that  the  Jesuits  would 
readily  resort  to  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
pontiffs  to  extend  and  confirm  their  power,  but 
treated  it  with  contempt  when  it  opposed  their  in- 
terests and  emoluments. 

II.  The  large  and  opulent  kingdom  of  China 
was  visited,  in  the  beginning  of  this  century,  by 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  275 

Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Capuchins,  and 
others,  for  the  purpose  of  spreading  the  knowledge 
of  Christianity.  Tlieir  labours  were  at  first  at- 
tended with  great  success.  But  the  Jesuits  justly 
claim  the  honour  of  surmounting  the  obstacles  that 
stood  in  their  way  among  that  proud  nation,  so 
tenacious  of  the  customs  of  their  ancestors.  Find- 
ing them  eager  after  knowledge,  and  very  fond  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  especially  the  mathematics, 
the  Jesuits  sent  among  them  men,  not  only  well 
acquainted  with  human  nature,  and  discreet  m 
managing  affairs,  but  also  profoundly  versed  in 
learning  and  the  abstruse  sciences.  Some  of  these 
by  their  address,  the  elegance  of  their  manners, 
and  their  skill  in  business,  soon  acquired  such  in- 
fluence, that  high  honours  and  offices  were  con- 
ferred on  them  by  the  emperor ;  and  they  were 
employed  in  affairs  of  the  greatest  consequence  in 
the  court  itself.  By  these  means  they  were  able 
without  much  difficulty,  to  collect  disciples  of  every 
rank,  sex,  and  age,  in  all  the  provinces  of  this 
vast  empire.  Their  prosperity  received  a  tempo- 
rary check  on  the  death  of  Xun-Cki,  the  first 
emperor  of  the  Mogul  race,  who  left  his  son  a 
minor.  For  the  chief  nobles,  who  had  long  view- 
ed the  new  religion  with  great  aversion,  stripped 
the  Jesuits  of  their  advantages,  their  fortunes,  and 
their  privileges,  and  condemned  John  Adam  Schall 
their  leader,  to  be  put  to  death,  and  others  to  be 
banished  the  country.  But  in  the  year  1669, 
when  Cham-Hi  took  the  sceptre  into  his  own 
hands,  the  prostrate  cause  of  the  Jesuits  was  not 
only  restored,  but  in  process  of  time  was  advanced 
and  exalted  more  than  ever.  In  1692  this  empe- 
ror published  a  law,  in  which  he  denied  that  the 
Christian  religion  was  injurious  to  the  state,  as  its 


2'i6  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

opposcrs  had  contended,  and  gave  all  his  subject! 
full  liberty  to  embrace  it ;  and  in  17U0,  even 
erected  a  splendid  temple  for  the  Jesuits  within 
the  limits  of  his  own  palace.  Christianity,  or 
rather  Jesuitism,  seemed  now  to  be  almost  trium- 
phant in  China.  But  the  enemies  of  the  Jesuits 
strenuously  maintain,  that  they  purchased  this 
success  at  the  expense  of  committing  offences  and 
crimes  of  a  detestable  character ;  that  they  per- 
suaded the  emperor  and  his  nobles,  that  there  was 
very  little  difference  between  the  ancient  religion 
of  China,  or  the  precepts  of  Confucius,  and  the 
relisrion  of  Christ ;  that  they  mixed  the  Chinese 
superstitions  with  Christianity,  and  allowed  their 
disciples  to  follow  the  profane  customs  and  im- 
pious rites  of  their  ancestors  ;  and  the  like.  This 
brought  about  a  strenuous  controversy  in  the  Ro- 
mish church,  in  which  some  of  the  popes  seem  to 
have  decided  for,  and  others  against,  the  Jesuits. 

III.  Christianity  had  been  introduced  into  Japan, 
the  preceding  century,  by  Francis  Xavier,  and 
had  met  with  very  great  success.  Schools  and 
churches  were  erected,  even  in  the  capital  Meaco. 
In  1585,  a  Japanese  embassy  was  sent  to  Rome  ; 
and  papal  Christianity  seemed  about  to  become 
the  prevailing  religion.  There  were  not  less  than 
two  hundred  thousand  Christians,  and  among 
them,  princes,  courtiers,  chief  nobles,  and  gene- 
rals. But  the  base  conduct  of  the  Europeans  de- 
feated this  prospect,  and  led  the  emperor  to  sus- 
pect Christianity  to  be  all  a  feirce.  He  became 
jealous  of  the  designs  of  these  strangers,  and  sus- 
pected that  it  was  only  a  scheme  to  get  possession 
of  his  country.  In  1587,  he  commenced  a  perse- 
cution. All  Jesuits  were  ordered  to  quit  the  coun- 
try.    Some  obeyed,  but  others   remained  under 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  277 

the  protection  of  the  nobles.  Out  of  two  hundred 
and  lifty  churches,  seventy  were  pulled  down  ; 
and  more  than  twenty  thousand  Christians  lost 
their  lives.  Persecution  was  renewed  in  1596, 
from  this  circumstance;  a  Spanish  sea  captain, 
driven  upon  the  coast,  showed  a  chart  of  exten- 
sive countries  subject  to  his  master;  and  being 
asked  how  his  master  could  conquer  so  many 
nations,  he  said,  their  missionaries  went  forward, 
and  prepared  the  minds  of  the  people  to  favour 
him,  and  then  fleets  and  armies  made  an  easy 
conquest.  When  this  was  transmitted  to  court, 
the  emperor  swore,  that  the  Spaniards  should 
never  thus  conquer  Japan  ;  and  immediately  set 
himself  to  exterminate  Christianity,  which  he 
called  a  devilish  law.  The  missionaries  were 
imprisoned ;  and  not  a  few  of  them,  as  well  as  of 
their  converts,  were  put  to  death.  Yet  still,  in 
the  beginning  of  this  century,  in  the  year  1603, 
there  were  one  hundred  and  twenty  Jesuits,  most 
of  them  priests,  in  Japan.  Another  persecution 
was  brought  on  by  an  English  officer  of  a  Dutch 
ship,  who  cautioned  the  Japanese  to  beware  of  the 
military  enterprises  of  the  Spaniards ;  and  who 
represented  the  priests  as  designing  men,  who  had 
been  excluded  from  most  European  countries,  and 
who  did  not  teach  genuine  Christianity.  And  yet, 
by  these  persecutions,  the  number  of  Jesuit-disci- 
ples in  Japan  had  not  been  greatly  diminished ; 
for  many  converts  were  made  from  time  to  time 
that  supplied  the  place  of  those  who  had  renounc- 
ed the  faith,  or  been  cut  off,  by  persecution :  and 
some  estimates  make  the  number  to  have  been 
about  four  hundred  thousand,  and  others  near  six 
hundred  thousand.  But  in  1637,  the  emperor  was 
exasperated  by  certain  letters  intercepted  by  the 
24 


278  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

Dutch,  and  by  other  evidence,  bearing  sti"ong  pro- 
bability, that  the  Jesuits  and  other  teachers  of  the 
new  religion,  designed  to  raise  a  sedition  by 
means  ol  their  disciples,  and  to  bring  Japan  under 
the  power  of  the  Spanish  kings.  This  brought 
on  a  persecution  without  a  parallel  in  history ; 
and  every  vestige  of  the  Christian  name  was  ex- 
terminated with  fire  and  sword.  Decrees  were 
passed  requiring  all  foreigners  to  quit  the  country 
at  once,  on  pain  of  death ;  and  subjecting  every 
foreigner  to  the  same  penalty,  who  should  ever 
set  his  foot  in  the  country.  The  return  of  the 
Japanese  Christians  to  paganism,  was  now  per- 
emptorily required,  on  pain  of  death.  The  de- 
crees were  rigorously  executed ;  and  two  years 
after,  the  Portuguese  were  all  driven  from  the 
country ;  and  only  the  Hollanders  were  allowed 
to  introduce  a  small  quantity  of  European  goods, 
and  to  live  as  it  were,  imprisoned  in  an  extreme 
corner  of  the  empire.  Thus  fell  the  Japanese 
church,  if  church  it  may  be  called,  after  it  had 
stood  very  near  a  century.  And  this  event  is 
now,  it  is  said,  annually  celebrated  in  all  the  sea- 
ports, by  publicly  trampling  under  foot  the  cross 
and  all  the  Popish  images. 

IV.  Many  respectable  and  pious  men  attempted 
to  rouse  the  Lutherans,  in  imitation  of  the  Roman 
Catholics,  to  missionary  efforts  in  behalf  of  the 
heathen ;  but  nothing  of  any  consequence  was 
done.  "  Justinian  Ernest,  Baron  of  Wels,  in 
1664,  published  two  letters,  addressed  to  the  Lu- 
theran community,  on  a  reformation  of  manners, 
and  efforts  for  the  conversion  of  the  heathen.  In 
the  first  he  proposes  to  them  three  questions : — Is 
it  right,  that  we  evangelical  Christians  should 
keep  the  Gospel  ourselves,  and  not  seek  to  spread 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  279 

it  abroad  ? — Is  it  right,  that  we  every  where  en- 
courage so  many  to  study  theology,  yet  give  them 
no  opportunity  to  go  abroad ;  but  rather  keep 
them,  three,  six,  or  more  years,  waiting  for 
parishes  to  become  vacant,  or  for  the  posts 
of  schoolmasters? — Is  it  right,  that  we  should 
expend  so  much  in  dress,  high  living,  useless 
amusements  and  expensive  fashions ;  yet  hitherto, 
have  never  thought  of  any  means  of  spreading  the 
Gospel  ?  His  proposal  to  form  a  missionary 
association  was  approved  by  some,  but  objected 
to  by  others,  especially  among  the  higher  clergy. 
He  himself  advanced  twelve  thousand  dollars  for 
the  object;  went  to  Holland  on  the  subject,  and  at 
length  shipped  for-  the  Dutch  West  Indies,  to 
embark  himself  in  missionary  labour;  but  he  was 
no  more  heard  of." 

"  x\mong  the  English,  in  the  year  1647,  by  an 
act  of  Parliament,  the  business  of  propagating 
Christianity  was  committed  to  the  care  of  a  society 
composed  of  men  of  the  highest  respectability  and 
integrity.  This  society  was  revived  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  A.  D.  1661,  and  again  confirmed, 
and  invested  with  extraordinary  privileges  and 
rights,  by  William  III.,  in  the  year  1701  ;  and  be- 
ing enriched  with  the  splendid  donations  of  kings, 
nobles,  and  private  individuals,  has  continued 
down  to  our  own  times."  It  was  this  society  that 
supported  the  various  missionary  operations  in 
New  England,  during  the  seventeenth  century. 
Its  expenditures  in  the  year  1661  amounted 
to  three  thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty  dol- 
lars. 

By  the  labours  of  the  Dutch,  an  immense  num- 
ber of  people  in  the  island  of  Ceylon,  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  in  the  island  of  Formosa,  and  in  other 


280  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

countries  of  x\sia,  are  said  to  have  renounced  the 
impious  rites  of  their  fathers.  "The  Dutch  con- 
quered Ceylon  from  the  Portuguese,  about  the 
middle  of  this  century,  and  immediately  estab- 
lished there  the  Protestant  religion,  excluding  all 
others  from  every  office.  The  Portuguese  inhab- 
itants, and  the  natives,  both  Catholics  and  pagans, 
in  large  numbers,  embraced  the  established  faith, 
at  least  in  pretence.  The  country  was  divided 
into  two  hundred  and  forty  parishes  ;  a  church  was 
erected,  and  a  school  established  in  each.  Every 
ten  schools  had  a  catechist,  who  was  their  super- 
intendent. About  fifteen  clergymen  were  assigned 
to  the  island.  In  1672,  BalclcPMS^  one  of  the 
Dutch  ministers,  gives  account  of  thirty  native 
churches  in  JafTnapatam,  in  which  were  about 
thirty  thousand  attendants  on  worship  on  Sundays, 
and  about  sixteen  thousand  pupils  in  the  schools  du- 
ring the  week.  Near  the  close  of  the  century.  Dr. 
Leusden  wrote  to  Dr.  Increase  Mather  of  Boston, 
that  in  and  near  the  island  of  Ceylon,  the  Dutch 
pastors  had  baptized  about  three  hundred  thousand 
of  the  natives.  The  Dutch  had  also  translated 
and  published  in  the  Cingalese  language,  consid- 
erable portions  of  the  Bible,  besides  catechisms, 
prayers,  and  other  Christian  books.  The  Dutch 
having  possessed  themselves  of  a  large  part  of  the 
island  of  Java,  opened  a  church  in  Batavia,  the 
capital,  in  the  year  1621.  Pursuing  much  the 
same  plans  here  as  at  Ceylon,  in  the  year  1721, 
they  could  reckon  one  hundred  thousand  Christ- 
ians in  Java,  and  two  Dutch,  two  Portuguese, 
and  one  or  two  Malay  churches  at  Batavia.  The 
New  Testament  in  Malay  was  printed  at  Amster- 
dam, 1668,  at  the  expense  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company.     Soon  after  establishing  the  Gospel  in 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  281 

Java,  the  Dutch  sent  ministers  from  Batavia  to  the 
island  of  Amboyna,  and  in  1686  it  is  said  they 
had  converted  thirty  thousand  of  the  natives. 
Here  too,  schools  were  established,  and  a  number 
of  ministers  stationed,  at  the  expense  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company." 

"In  1634,  the  Dutch  formed  a  settlement  on 
the  western  part  of  the  island  of  Formosa.  Rob- 
ert Junius,  of  Delft,  was  sent  out  by  the  Dutch 
government  to  establish  Christianity  there.  He  is 
said  to  have  baptized  six  thousand  persons,  and 
to  have  set  up  schools,  in  which  about  six  hun- 
dred young  men  were  taught  to  read.  He  com- 
posed some  prayers,  and  translated  certain  psalms 
into  the  Formosan  language;  and  though  his 
labours  were  chiefly  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
island,  yet  he  had  planted  churches  in  twenty-three 
towns  in  the  south,  and  had  set  pastors  over  them, 
when  he  returned  to  Holland.  In  1661,  the  Gos- 
pels of  Matthew  and  John  were  translated  into  the 
Formosan  language,  by  Dan.  Gravius,  and  printed 
at  Amsterdam,  together  with  a  catechism.  But 
probably  before  these  books  reached  the  island,  it 
was  captured  by  a  Chinese  pirate,  and  it  has  since 
belonged  to  the  Chinese.  Besides  the  converts  in 
these  places,  the  Dutch  made  many  others  in  Su- 
matra, Timor,  Celebes,  Banda,  Ternate,  and  the 
neighbouring  Molucca  islands." 

V.  The  Capuchin  monks,  about  the  middle 
of  this  century,  encountered  incredible  toils  and 
hardships  in  -bringing  some  of  the  ferocious 
nations  of  Africa,  contiguous  to  the  Portuguese 
settlements  on  the  western  coast,  to  the  knowledge 
of  Christ.  But  their  success  was  not  great.  The 
Aborigines  of  America,  who  have  been  subdued 
by  the  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French,  have  re- 
24* 


282  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ceived  some  slight  knowledge  of  the  Romish 
religion,  by  the  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  and  others ; 
but  this  knowledge  has  usually  exerted  but  little 
influence,  and  it  is  wholly  obscured  by  the  bar- 
barity of  their  customs  and  manners.  In  some 
provinces,  both  in  North  and  South  America, 
Indian  Commonwealths  have  been  founded  by  the 
Jesuits.  "But  while  the  Jesuits  highly  extol  the 
merits  and  zeal  of  their  order  in  this  thing,  others 
deny  their  claims  ;  and  maintain,  that  they  are 
more  eager  after  public  honours,  wealth  and 
power,  than  the  advancement  of  Christianity  ;  and 
say,  they  have  collected  immense  quantities  of 
gold,  from  Paraguay,  which  is  subject  to  their 
sole  authority,  and  from  other  countries,  which 
they  have  transmitted  to  their  society  in  Europe. 
VI.  Very  different  from  these,  were  the  mis- 
sionary efforts  of  Eliot,  the  Mayhews,  Bourne, 
and  others,  of  the  Puritan  emigrants  to  New  Eng- 
land. Eliot,  who  has  been  called  the  Apostle  of 
the  Indians,  laboured  among  them  from  1632, 
fifty-eight  years,  or  until  his  death,  in  1690.  He 
established  a  number  of  congregations,  and  set 
over  them  Indian  preachers  whom  he  had  instruct- 
ed. He  set  up  schools  in  their  villages,  introduced 
a  regular  form  of  civil  government,  and  many  of 
the  useful  arts  and  industry.  He  translated  into 
the  Indian  language,  primers,  catechisms,  the 
Practice  of  Piety,  Baxter's  Call  to  the  Unconverted, 
several  of  Mr.  Shepherd's  works,  and  at  length  the 
whole  Bible,  which  was  firs't  published  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1664,  and  again  just  after  his  death. — 
The  Mayhews  laboured  much  among  the  Indians 
m  Nantucket  and  Martha's  Vineyard ;  and  a 
large  number  of  them  became  converts  to  Christ- 
ianity.    Mr.   Richard   Bourne  was   ordained,  in 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  283 

1666,  over  an  Indian  church  at  Mashpee.  His 
charge,  in  1674,  embraced  about  five  hundred 
souls,  of  whom  ninety  were  baptized,  and  twenty 
seven  communicants.  Many  others  devoted  some 
part  of  their  time  to  the  instruction  of  the  Indians. 
— The  state  of  Christianity  among  the  Indians  of 
New  England,  in  1687,  was  thus  described  by 
Dr.  Increase  Mather,  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Leusden : 
"  There  are  six  churches  of  baptized  Indians  in 
New  England,  and  eighteen  assemblies  of  cate- 
chumens professing  the  name  of  Christ.  Of  the 
Indians,  there  are  four  and  twenty,  who  are 
preachers  of  the  word  of  God  :  and  besides  these, 
there  are  four  English  ministers,  who  preach  the 
gospel  in  the  Indian  tongue." 

VII.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  infidelity  be- 
gan to  prevail  to  a  great  extent ;  and  not  a  few 
persons,  and  some  of  them  men  of  considerable 
learning  and  talents,  distinguished  themselves  as 
the  opposers  of  Christianity.  The  English  com- 
plain, that  from  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  their  na- 
tion was  contaminated  with  the  grossest  vice  and 
profligacy ;  that  this  state  of  things  gave  rise  to 
unbridled  licentiousness  of  speculation,  and  dispu- 
tation on  religious  subjects ;  and  that  both  united 
produced  a  multitude  of  persons  who  prostituted 
their  talents  and  ingenuity,  to  extinguish  all  sense 
of  religion  and  piety.  The  standard  bearer  of  this 
impious  company,  who  set  themselves  in  opposi- 
tion to  God  and  things  sacred,  was  Thomas  Hob- 
bes,  of  Malmesbury.  He  subverts  all  the  founda- 
tions of  religion,  and  makes  morality  depend  wholly 
on  the  enactments  of  monarchs.  He  was  a  man, 
daring,  crafty,  acute,  and  perspicacious,  and  of 
more  genius  than  learning  or  knowledge,  either 
human  or  divine.     John  Wilmot,  earl  of  Roches- 


284  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ter,  attacked  God  and  religion  with  even  more 
fury  than  Hobbes.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
discernment  and  brilliancy  of  genius ;  but  of 
astonishing  levity,  and  while  health  permitted, 
libidinous  and  debauched.  He  died,  1680,  an 
humble  penitent,  seriously  lamenting  and  de- 
testihg  his  former  wickedness  and  profanity, 
and  casting  his  soul  upon  the  mercy  of  God  in 
Christ.  Anthony  Ashly  Cooper,  earl  of  Shaftes- 
bury, attacked  Christianity  in  a  covert  manner, 
sometimes  expressing  great  respect  for  it. — But 
his  pungent  wit,  the  elegance  of  his  style,  and  the 
charms  of  his  genius,  rendered  him  the  more  dan- 
gerous foe  to  religion,  in  proportion  to  the  con- 
cealment he  practised.  He  died  at  Naples  of  a 
consumption,  A.  D.  1703.  Other  writers  of  this 
stamp  were,  John  Toland,  an  Irishman  ;  who  was 
not  destitute  of  learning,  but  vain-glorious,  and  of 
abandoned  morals: — Edward  Herbert,  baron  of 
Cherbury ;  who  if  he  did  not  deny  the  truth  of 
Christianity,  yet  maintained  that  the  knowledge 
of  it,  was  not  necessary  to  salvation : — Charles 
Blount,  who  committed  suicide  in  1693. — On  the 
continent,  Benedict  de  Spinoza,  a  Portuguese  Jew, 
who  died  at  the  Hague  in  1677,  stands  at  the  head 
of  those  who  embrace  the  Panthehtic  doctrine ; 
i.  e.  that  the  universe  is  God.  He  has  had  many 
followers  and  admirers,  and  it  is  said  still  has  in 
Europe. 

VIII.  Literature,  the  arts  and  sciences,  were 
advanced  in  this  century  by  many  distinguished 
individuals :  such  as,  Gahleo  in  Italy ;  Tycho 
Brahe,  among  the  Danes ;  Francis  Bacon,  (Lord 
Verulam,)  Robert  Boyle,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and 
John  Locke,  among  the  English ;  John  Kepler, 
John  Hevelius,  William  Godfrey  Leibnitz,  among 


SEVENTEEXTH    CENTURY.  285 

the  Germans  ;  the  Bernouilli  in  Switzerland  ;  and 
Hugo  Grotius  in  Holland.  Also,  among  the  Fa- 
thers of  the  Oratory,  and  the  Jansenists,  in  France, 
learning  and  philosophy  were  greatly  advanced 
by  such  men  as  Malebranche,  Arnaud,  Lami, 
Nicole,  Pascal,  Des  Cartes,  and  Gassendi.  The 
court  of  Rome,  however;  fearing  every  thing  new, 
viewed  the  progress  of  science  with  great  jealousy  ; 
and  Galileo  was  imprisoned  for  bringing  forward 
the  Copernican  system  of  astronomy. — There  was 
a  philosophical  sect  that  made  much  noise  in  this 
century,  the  professors  of  which  styled  themselves, 
the  Rosecrucian  Brethren.  They  were  a  set  of 
Alchemists,  who  sought  for  the  Philosopher's 
Stone,  and  the  Elixir  of  Life  ;  and  who  explained 
every  thing  in  the  moral  and  religious,  as  well  as 
in  the  natural  world,  by  chemical  terms,  and  in 
analogy  with  chemical  principles. 

IX.  The  Roman  pontiffs  of  the  seventeenth 
century  were,  as  usual,  some  better  and  some 
worse.  Innocent  X.,  from  A.  D.  1644  to  1655, 
surrendered  himself  to  the  control  of  a  wicked 
and  insolent  kinswoman,  by  the  name  of  Olym- 
pia  ;  with  whom,  it  would  seem,  he  kept  up  a  very 
criminal  intercourse.  All  public  affairs,  civil  and 
sacred,  were  under  her  control.  Innocent  XL, 
from  1676  to  1689,  was  perhaps  the  best  pope  of 
this  century.  He  exerted  himself  to  reform  the 
corrupt  state  of  the  church  and  of  the  clergy,  but 
with  little  success.  Innocent  XII.,  from  1691  tc 
1700,  was  hke  minded,  but  with  no  better  suc- 
cess. 

X.  Great  efforts  were  made  by  the  court  of 
Rome,  not  only  to  extend  their  power  and  influ- 
ence over  foreign  and  heathen  nations,  as  we  have 
seen ;  but  also  to  reclaim  the  dominion  which  they 


286  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

had  lost  by  the  Reformation.  To  accomplish  this 
end,  they  resorted  to  the  powers  of  genius,  to  arms 
and  violence,  to  promises,  to  flatteries,  to  disputa- 
tions, to  wiles  and  fallacies ;  but,  for  the  most 
part,  with  little  success.  It  was  this  that  brought 
on  the  disastrous  thirty  years' war  of  Germany, 
which  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia, 
A.  D.  1648.  It  was  in  this  war,  that  the  cele- 
brated Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  dis- 
tinguished himself,  and  lost  his  life  in  defending 
the  German  Protestants  from  the  tyranny  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  By  the  peace  of  Westphalia, 
the  great  interests  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
churches  were  firmly  established.  Afler  this,  the 
Roman  pontiffs  and  their  adherents  did  not  ven- 
ture to  make  public  war  against  the  Protestants ; 
but  whenever  it  could  safely  be  done,  they  exerted 
themselves  to  the  utmost  to  abridge  their  rights, 
advantages,  and  privileges,  in  every  possible  man- 
ner ;  although  secured  to  them  by  oaths,  and  the 
most  sacred  enactments.  In  Hungary,  in  Poland, 
in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  and  throughout  Ger- 
many, they  who  dissented  from  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff, experienced  from  time  to  time,  to  their  very 
great  sorrow  and  distress,  that  no  compact,  limit- 
ing the  power  of  the  Romish  church,  was  account- 
ed sacred  and  inviolable  at  Rome.  "  And  so 
long,"  says  Dr.  Mosheim,  "  as  it  shall  remain  the 
established  belief  at  Rome,  that  God  has  given  to 
the  Romish  church  and  to  its  head,  dominion  over 
the  whole  Christian  world,  it  can  never  be  expect- 
ed that  those  can  live  in  security  and  safety,  who 
renounce  subjection  to  it." 

Many  efforts  were  made  to  bring  England  back 
to  her  allegiance  to  the  pope.  One  was  the  gun- 
powder plot,  A.  D.  1605,  in  the  reign  of  James  I., 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURT.  287 

m  which  it  was  designed,  by  means  of  gunpowder 
deposited  under  the  parliament  house,  to  destroy 
the  king,  and  the  whole  British  parliament,  at  a 
single  blow.  But  this  nefarious  plot,  devised  by 
three  Jesuits,  was  happily  discovered  in  time.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of 
James  I.,  who  was  guided  chiefly  by  the  counsels 
of  William  Laud,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (who 
was  at  least  half  a  Papist,)  the  same  thing  was 
attempted,  with  great  hope  of  success,  by  caresses 
and  promises.  But  this  hope  was  blasted  by  the 
civil  war,  in  which  Laud  and  Charles  were  both 
beheaded,  and  Oliver  Cromwell  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  government,  with  the  title  of  Protector.  The 
same  attempts  were  made  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
IL,  and  continued  in  the  reign  of  James  IL,  and 
finally  brought  on  the  revolution,  in  which  the 
house  of  Stuart  yielded  to  the  house  of  Hanover, 
and  William,  prince  of  Orange,  who  was  a  Pro- 
testant, ascended  the  throne  of  England. 

Many  efforts  were  made  on  the  continent  to 
bring  about  a  reconciliation  and  union  between 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  by  means  of  public  con- 
ferences and  disputations,  but  without  any  success. 
The  great  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Romanists  was 
to  make  it  appear,  that  when  rightly  understood, 
there  was  but  small  difference  between  them ;  a 
thing  which  Protestants  could  never  be  persuaded 
to  believe. 

XL  In  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  Portu- 
guese Jesuits,  by  their  cunning  and  management, 
had  induced  the  king  of  Abyssinia,  to  swear  obe- 
dience to  the  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and 
to  require  his  people  to  embrace  the  religion  of 
Rome.  But  by  their  ill-timed  zeal,  and  violent 
proceedings,  they  lost  every  thing :  and  in  1634, 


288  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY, 

they  were  wholly  driven  from  the  country,  with 
out  the  least  indulgence ;    since  which    time  the 
Abyssinians    have    strictly   prohibited   foreigners 
from  entering  their  borders. 

XII.  Several  new  orders  of  Monks  arose  in  this 
century  ;  as  the  French  Society  of  Fathers  of  the 
Oratory  of  the  Holy  Jesus,  instituted  in  1613. 
This  institution  was  intended  to  oppose  the  Jesuits, 
and  has  trained  up  many  persons  eminent  for 
piety,  eloquence,  and  erudition. — The  Priests  of 
the  Missions,  instituted  in  1632 ; — they  were  to 
attend  to  three  things  :  first,  to  improve  and  amend 
themselves,  daily,  by  prayers,  meditation,  reading, 
&c. ;  secondly,  to  perform  sacred  missions  among 
the  people  living  in  the  country  towns  and  villages, 
eight  months  in  the  year ;  and  lastly,  to  superin- 
tend seminaries,  in  which  young  men  are  educat- 
ed for  the  priesthood,  and  train  up  candidates  for 
the  sacred  office.  Under  the  counsel  and  patron- 
age of  these  Priests  of  the  Missions,  are  the  Vir- 
gins of  Love,  or  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  whose 
business  it  is  to  minister  to  the  indigent  in  sick- 
ness. 

XIII.  Many  and  grievous  charges  were  brought 
against  the  Jesuits  in  almost  every  country,  by 
their  enemies,  especially  the  Jansenists  ;  many  of 
which  charges  were  substantiated  by  abundant 
evidence ;  yet  they  maintained  their  ground,  and 
possessed  great  wealth  and  influence. 

That  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  were  greatly 
perverted,  and  the  very  foundations  of  morality  in 
a  great  measure  destroyed,  by  the  Jesuits,  is  the 
public  complaint  of  many  writers  of  every  class, 
and  of  societies  of  men,  in  the  Romish  church. 
They  are  charged  with  teaching  the  following  doc- 
trines, viz.  "  That  a  bad  man,  who  is  an  entire 


SEVENTEENTH    CENrURY.  289 

stranger  to  the  love  of  God,  piovided  he  feels  some 
fear  of  divine  wrath,  and  from  a  dread  of  punish 
ment  avoids  grosser  crimes,  is  a  fit  candidate  for 
eternal  salvation  :  That  men  may  sin,  with  safety, 
provided  they  have  a  probable  reason  for  the  sin  ; 
i.  e.  some  argument  or  authority  in  favour  of  it: 
That  actions  in  themselves  wrong,  and  contrary  to 
the  divine  lav/,  are  allowable,  provided  a  person 
can  control  his  own  mind,  and  in  his  thoughts  con- 
nect a  good  end,  with  the  criminal  deed,  or  as  they 
express  it,  direct  his  attention  aright :  That  philo- 
sophical sins,  that  is,  actions  which  are  contrary 
to  the  law  of  nature  and  to  right  reason,  in  a  per- 
son ignorant  of  the  written  law  of  God,  or  dubious 
as  to  its  true  meaning,  are  light  offences,  and  do 
not  deserve  the  punishments  of  hell  :  That  the 
deeds  a  man  commits,  when  wholly  blinded  by  his 
lusts  and  the  paroxysm  of  passion,  and  destitute  of 
all  sense  of  religion,  though  they  be  of  the  vilest 
and  most  inexcusable  character,  can  by  no  means 
be  charged  to  his  account  in  the  judgment  of  God  ; 
because  such  a  man  is  like  a  madman:  That  it  is 
right  for  a  man,  when  taking  an  oath,  or  forming 
a  contract,  in  order  to  deceive  the  judge  and  sub- 
vert the  validity  of  the  covenant  or  oath,  tacitly  to 
add  something  to  the  words  of  the  compact  or 
oath  :  and  others  of  like  kind.  The  reason  assign- 
ed, why  so  many  kings  and  princes,  and  persons  ■ 
of  every  rank  and  sex,  committed  the  care  of  their 
souls  to  the  Jesuits,  rather  than  to  others,  is,  that 
they  by  their  precepts,  extenuated  the  guilt  of  sin, 
flattered  the  criminal  passions  of  men,  and  opened 
an  easy  and  convenient  way  to  heaven. 

XIV.  A  great  controversy  was  carried  on  be- 
tween the  Dominicans  and  Jansenists  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  Jesuits  on  the  other,  respecting  the 
25 


290  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

doctrines  of  Grace,  Predestination,  &c.  ;  the  for 
mer  maintaining  the  system  of  Augustine,  differ- 
ing little  from  that  of  Calvin  ;  the  latter  approach- 
ing that  of  Pelagius,  or  nearer,  perhaps,  to  what 
jias  since  been  called  Arminianism.  These  dis- 
cussions produced  great  excitement,  and  sometimes 
violent  contests  between  the  parties.  By  the  ur- 
gent solicitation  of  the  Jesuits,  pope  Innocent  X. 
was  induced  by  a  public  edict,  dated  May  31st, 
1653,  to  condemn  as  false  and  heretical,  the  five 
following  propositions,  extracted  from  the  works 
of  Jansenius,  viz  : 

1.  "  That  there  are  some  commands  of  God, 
which  righteous  and  good  men  are  absolutely  un- 
able to  obey,  though  disposed  to  do  it ;  and  that 
God  docs  not  give  them  so  much  grace  as  that 
they  may  be  able  to  observe  them.  2.  That  no 
person  in  this  corrupt  state  of  nature,  can  resist 
rliVine  grace  operating  upon  the  mind.  3.  That  in 
order  to  a  man's  being  praise  or  blame  worthy  be- 
fore God,  he  need  not  be  exempt  from  necessity, 
but  only  from  coercion.  4.  That  the  Semi-Pela- 
gians erred  greatly  by  supposing  that  the  human 
will  has  the  power  both  of  admitting  and  of  reject- 
ing the  operations  of  internal,  preventing  grace.  5. 
That  whoever  affirms  that  Jesus  Christ  made  expia- 
tion by  his  sufferings  and  death,  for  the  sins  of  all 
mankind,  is  a  Semi-Pelagian." 

XV.  A  sect  called  Quietists,  arose  towards  the 
end  of  this  century,  and  attracted  considerable  no- 
tice. They  held  doctrines  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  ancient  Mystics.  The  author,  of  this  sect, 
was  one  Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest,  who  was  thrown 
into  prison  for  his  sentiments,  where  he  died  ;  yet 
he  had  numerous  disciples  in  Italy,  Spain,  France, 
and  the  Netherlands. 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  291 

In  regard  to  the  Greek  church,  nothing  of  pecu- 
liar interest  seems  to  have  transpired  in  this  cen- 
tury. Some  efforts  were  still  made,  to  bring  over 
the  Greeks,  and  other  Asiatic  Christians,  to  the 
Romish  church  ;  but  without  effect. 

XVI.  The  Lutheran  church  sustained  some  loss 
in  the  beginning  of  this  century,  by  the  secession 
of  Maurice,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  who  went  over  to 
the  Reformed  ;  and  commanded  that  the  people, 
throughout  his  province,  should  be  thoroughly 
taught  the  Reformed  doctrines,  and  that  public  wor- 
ship be  conducted  in  the  Genevan  manner.  John 
Sigismund  also,  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  left  the 
communion  of  the  Lutherans,  and  went  over  to  the 
Reformed.  Many  efforts  were  made,  from  time  to 
time,  to  bring  about  a  union  between  the  Lutheran 
and  the  Reformed  churches  ;  but  without  success. 
The  Lutherans  never  would  yield  in  the  smallest 
degree. 

XVII,  There  were  two  controversies  which 
greatly  troubled  the  Lutheran  church  during  this 
century.  One  was  called  the  Syncretistic,  and  the 
other,  the  Pietistic  controversy.  The  first  was  oc- 
casioned by  George  Calixtus,  a  professor  of  theolo- 
gy,  in  the  univ^ersity  of  Helmstadt ;  a  man  who 
had  few  equals  in  this  century,  either  for  learning  or 
genius.  His  object  was,  it  is  said,  to  unite  the 
Romish,  Lutheran,  and  Calvinistic  churches  in  the 
bonds  of  charity  and  benevolence.  He  maintain- 
ed, 1.  "  That  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christ- 
ianity, by  which  he  meant  those  elementary  prin- 
ciples whence  all  its  truths  flow,  were  preserved  in 
all  three  communions,  and  were  contained  in  that 
ancient  form  of  doctrine  that  is  vulgarly  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.  2.  That  the 
tenets  and  opinions  which  had  been  constantly  re- 


292  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ceived  by  the  ancient  doctors,  during  the  first  five 
centuries,  were  to  be  considered  as  of  equal  truth 
and  authority  with  the  express  declarations  and 
doctrines  of  the  Scriptures."  This  brought  upon 
him  a  furious  attack,  and  was  the  occasion  of 
a  protracted  controversy,  that  had  well  nigh  rent 
asunder  the  Lutheran  church. 

XVIII.  The  Pietistic  controversy  grew  out  of 
the  efforts  of  the  learned  and  pious  Spener,  and 
others,  who  united  with  him,  to  revive  true  reli- 
gion, both  among  the  people,  and  among  the  cler- 
gy, which  seems  at  this  time  to  have  been  at  a  low 
ebb.  For  this  purpose,  Spener  set  up  private 
meetings  at  Frankfort,  something  like  prayer- 
meetings,  called  Colleges  of  Piety,  and  afterwards 
published  a  book  under  the  title  of  Pious  Desires, 
in  which  he  set  forth  his  views  of  the  evils  exist- 
ing in  the  church,  and  their  remedies.  These 
views  spread,  and  were  adopted  very  extensively. 
Meetings  for  prayer  and  exhortation  were  opened 
in  very  many  places  ;  and  often  through  igno- 
rance or  mistaken  zeal,  were  improperly  conduct- 
ed, and  gave  rise  to  considerable  irregularities. 
The  Pietists  insisted  on  a  change  in  the  manner  of 
teaching  theology  in  the  schools,  more  in  conform- 
ity with  the  Scriptures,  and  the  necessity  of  devot- 
ed piety  in  the  teachers  and  ministers  of  religion. 
They  also  thought  it  necessary,  1.  "To suppress 
in  the  public  instruction,  certain  common  expres- 
sions, which  the  depravity  of  men  leads  them  to 
construe  in  a  manner  to  favour  their  wickedness. 
Such  were  the  following  :  that  no  person  can  at- 
tain, in  tne  present  life,  that  perfection  which  the 
law  of  God  demands  ;  that  good  works  are  not 
necessary  to  salvation  ;  that  in  the  act  of  justifica- 
tion, faith  only  is  concerned,  and  not  also  good 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  293 

works.  But  very  many  feared,  lest,  if  these  bar- 
riers were  removed,  the  truth  would  be  corrupted, 
or  at  least,  would  be  exposed  naked  and  defence- 
less to  its  enemies.  2.  That  stricter  rules  of  con- 
duct should  be  introduced,  than  were  generally  fol- 
lowed ;  and  that  many  things,  which  foster  the  in- 
ternal disease  of  the  mind,  such  as  dancing,  pan- 
tomimes, jocular  discourse,  plays,  dramatic  exhi- 
bitions, the  reading  of  ludicrous  books,  and  certain 
kinds  of  amusements,  should  be  removed  from  the 
class  of  indifferent  things,  which  are  either  good 
or  bad  according  to  the  spirit  and  temper  of  those 
who  engage  in  them,  and  should  be  classed  among 
sinful  and  unlawful  things.  But  many  thought 
this  morality  too  rigorous.  Hence  that  old  contro- 
versy of  the  schools  was  revived  ;  whether  there 
are  certain  actions,  that  are  neither  good  nor  evil, 
but  indifferent;  or  whether  every  thing  men  do, 
is  either  sinful  or  holy.  And  on  each  of  the  sub- 
jects enumerated,  there  were  frequent  and  very 
warm  debates,  which  were  not  always  conducted 
with  precision,  temperance,  and  gravity.  3.  That 
in  addition  to  the  public  assemblies  for  religious 
worship,  there  should  be  frequent  private  meetings 
for  prayer  and  other  religious  exercises.  But 
very  many  judged,  and  experience  confirmed  the 
opinion,  that  these  Colleges  of  Piety,  as  they 
were  called,  were  attended  with  more  danger  than 
profit." 

Besides  these,  a  number  of  local  or  less  impor- 
tant controversies  were  carried  on  in  the  Lutheran 
church,  during  this  century,  but  which  it  would  be 
unprofitable  to  mention. 

XIX.  By  the  English  and  Dutch,  the  Reformed 
religion  was  transplanted  into  Africa,  Asia,  and  es- 
pecially America.  But  the  Reformed  church  in 
25* 


294  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

Franco,  which  had  tlourished  from  the  times  of 
Henry  IV.,  and  hud  produced  so  many  eminent 
men,  suflered  an  almost  entire  overthrow,  under 
Louis  XIV.,  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nan- 
tes. A.  D,  1685.  This  edict,  which  had  secured 
to  the  Protestants  their  rights  and  privileges  for 
nearly  one  hundred  years,  Louis  XIV.,  overcome 
by  the  arguments  and  importunate  supplications 
of  the  French  bishops,  the  .Jesuits  and  the  pope, 
revoked,  and  required  his  Reformed  subjects  to  re- 
turn to  the  religion  of  their  progenitors.  This 
most  unrighteous  act  deprived  France,  notwith- 
standing the  great  pains  taken  to  prevent  their 
escape  from  the  kingdom,  some  say  of  half  a  mil- 
lion, and  others  say  eight  hundred  thousand  of  her 
most  valuable  and  useful  citizens.  Nearly  forty 
thousand  are  said  to  have  passed  over  to  England, 
whence  many  of  them  came  to  the  United  States 
of  America.  Vast  numbers  settled  in  Holland, 
and  large  numbers  in  the  Protestant  states  of  Ger- 
many, particularly  in  Prussia,  and  in  Switzerland 
and  JDeninark.  The  cruelties  that  attended  this 
persecution  are  too  various  and  horrible  to  be  de- 
tailed. The  Waldenses  inhabiting  the  valleys  of 
Piedmont,  by  the  instruments  of  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff,  were  miserably  oppressed  and  harassed  from 
time  to  time,  almost  to  extermination,  particularly 
in  the  vears  1655,  1686,  and  1696.  The  church 
of  the  Palatinate,  also,  from  the  year  1685,  when 
the  government  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  prince,  gradually  suffered  so  much  dimi- 
nution, that  from  holding  the  first  rank,  it  was  de- 
pressed to  almost  the  lowest  among  the  Reformed 
churches  of  Germany. 

The  school  at  Geneva  was  in  such  reputation, 
that  multitudes  resorted  to  it  from  all  parts ;  and 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  295 

hence  the  opinions  of  Calvin,  respecting  the  divine 
decrees  and  grace,  readily  spread  every  where, 
and  were  generally  embraced  and  introduced  into 
all  the  schools.  Yet  there  were  some  here  and 
there,  who  wholly  disagreed  with  these  doctrines, 
of  whom  James  Arminius,  professor  of  theology 
at  Ley  den,  was  the  principal  one,  and  gave  name 
to  the  party. 

XX.  "  The  distinguishing  tenets  of  the  Armi- 
nians,"  says  Buck,  "  may  be  comprised  in  the 
five  following  articles,  called  the  Five  Poi'nts^ 
relative  to  predestination,  universal  redemption, 
the  corruption  of  man,  conversion,  and  perse- 
verance, viz : — 

1.  That  God,  from  all  eternity,  determined  to 
bestow  salvation  on  those  who,  he  foresaw,  would 
persevere  unto  the  end,  and  to  inflict  everlasting 
punishments  on  those  who  should  continue  in 
their  unbelief,  and  resist  his  divine  succours;  so 
that  election  was  conditional,  and  reprobation  in 
like  manner  the  result  of  foreseen  infidelity  and 
persevering  wickedness. 

2.  That  Jesus  Christ,  by  his  sufferings  and 
death,  made  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  all 
mankind  in  general,  and  of  every  individual  in 
particular ;  that  however  none  but  those  who 
believe  in  him,  can  be  partakers  of  divine 
benefits. 

3.  That  true  faith  cannot  proceed  from  the  ex- 
ercise of  our  natural  faculties  and  powers,  nor 
from  the  force  and  operation  of  free  will,  since 
man,  in  consequence  of  his  natural  corruption,  is 
incapable  of  either  thinking  or  doing  any  good 
thing;  and  that,  therefore,  it  is  necessary,  in 
order  to  his  conversion  and  salvation,  that  he  be 
regenerated  and  renewed  by  the  operation  of  the 


296  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORV^. 

Holy  Ghost,  which  is  the  gift  of  God  through 
Jesus  Christ. 

4.  That  this  divine  grace  or  energy  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  begins  and  perfects  every  thing  that 
can  be  called  good  in  man ;  and  consequently, 
all  good  works  are  to  be  attributed  to  God  alone : 
that,  nevertheless,  this  grace  is  offered  to  all,  and 
does  not  force  men  to  act  against  their  inclina- 
tions, but  may  be  resisted  and  rendered  ineffectual 
by  the  perverse  will  of  the  impenitent  sinner. 
Some  modern  Arminians  interpret  this  and  the 
last  article  with  greater  latitude. 

5.  That  God  gives  to  the  truly  faithful  who 
are  regenerated  by  his  grace,  the  means  of  pre- 
serving themselves  in  this  state.  The  first  Ar- 
minians, indeed,  had  some  doubts  with  respect  to 
the  closing  part  of  this  article,  but  their  followers 
uniformly  maintain,  that  "  the  regenerate  may 
lose  true  justifying  faith,  fall  from  a  state  of 
grace,  and  die  in  their  sins." 

XXI.  It   was  to    settle   this  Arminian  contro 
versy,  that  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort  was  con 
vened  in  1618,  by  authority  of  the  States  General 
"  The  most  eminent  divines  of  the  United  Pro 
vinces,"    says    Buck,    "  and    deputies    from    the 
churches  of  England,  Scotland,  Switzerland,  Bre^ 
men,  Hesse,  and  the  Palatinate,  assembled  on  this 
occasion,  in  order  to  decide  the  controversy  be- 
tween the  Calvinists  and  Arminians.     The  Synod 
had  hardly  commenced  its  deliberations,  before  a 
dispute  on  the  mode  of  proceeding  drove  the  Ar- 
minian party  from  the  Assembly.    The  Arminians 
insisted  upon  beginning  with  a  refutation  of  the 
Calvinistic  doctrines,  especially  that  of  reproba- 
tion, whilst   the  Synod  determined,  that,  as  the 
remonstrants  were  accused  of  departing  from  the 


SEVENTEENTH    CEXTUKV.  297 

reformed  faith,  they  ought  first  to  justify  them- 
selves by  scriptural  proof  of  their  own  opinions. 
All  means  to  persuade  the  Arrainians  to  submit 
to  this  procedure  having  failed,  they  vvere  ban- 
ished the  Synod  for  their  refusal.  The  Synod, 
however,  proceeded  in  their  exammation  of  the 
Arminian  tenets,  condemned  their  opinions,  and 
excommunicated  their  persons,  whether  justly  or 
unjustly,  let  the  reader  judge.  Surely  no  one 
can  be  an  advocate  for  the  persecution  which 
foUow^ed,  and  which  drove  these  men  from  their 
churches  and  country  into  poverty  and  exile. 
The  authority  of  this  Synod  was  far  from  being 
universally  acknowledged,  either  in  Holland  or  in 
England.  The  provinces  of  Friesland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  Guelderland,  and  Groningen,  could  not 
be  persuaded  to  adopt  their  decisions,  and  they 
were  opposed  by  king  James  I.  and  Archbishop 
Laud,  in  England." 

XXII.  The  English  church  was  agitated  with 
violent  storms.  When  James  I.  cam.e  to  the 
throne,  after  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  the  Puritans 
promised  themselves  greater  liberty  and  privileges  ; 
for  he  had  been  educated  in  Scotland,  and  pro- 
fessed attachment  to  the  puritan  doctrines  But 
very  soon  they  found  their  hopes  disappointed. 
James  was  ambitious  and  fond  of  power  ;  and  he 
at  once  judged  that  the  Episcopal  form  of  church 
government  would  be  more  convenient  and  friendly 
to  his  wishes  than  the  Presbyterian.  His  maxim 
was,  "  No  bishop,  no  king."  He,  therefore,  showed 
great  partiality  to  the  Episcopalians.  And  after 
a  while  he  embraced  the  Arminian  doctrines,  and 
violently  opposed  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort :  and  there  is  good  evidence  to  believe  that, 
before  his  death,  in  1625,  he  even  contemplated 


298  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORr. 

uniting  himself  with  th(3  church  of  Rome.  The 
king  becoming  thus  alienated  from  the  Calvinistic 
opinions  and  customs,  the  old  hatred  against  the 
Puritans,  which  had  somewhat  subsided,  again 
revived.  His  son  and  successor,  Charles  I.,  de- 
termined to  walk  in  the  steps  of  his  father.  He 
therefore  used  every  etibrt,  first,  to  extend  the 
regal  power,  and  to  exalt  it  above  the  authority  of 
the  laws;  secondly,  to  subject  the  whole  church 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  to  the  episcopal  form 
of  government,  which  he  considered  as  of  divine 
appointment,  and  as  affording  the  best  security  to 
the  crown;  and  thirdly,  to  reduce  the  whole  reli- 
gion  of  the  country  to  the  pattern  and  form  of  the 
primitive  church,  in  the  first  four  centuries,  re- 
jecting all  the  doctrines  and  institutions  of  the 
Genevans.  The  execution  of  these  designs  he 
entrusted  chiefly  to  William  Laud,  then  bishop  of 
London,  and  afterwards,  from  1633,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  The  lawless  and  violent  manner 
in  which  Laud  prosecuted  this  work  ;  his  attempts 
to  introduce  Arminian  doctrines  and  Romish  cere- 
monies into  the  English  church  ;  his  high-toned 
episcopacy,  which  he  attempted  to  impose  upon 
the  Scottish  church  ;  the  violent  persecution  he 
carried  on  against  the  Puritans  ;  and  his  taking 
some  direct  steps  towards  a  union  with  the  church 
of  Rome,  excited  immense  odium  against  the  king, 
and  himself,  and  the  whole  order  of  bishops.  He 
was  therefore  arraigned  by  the  parliament  in  1644, 
judged  guilty  of  betraying  the  liberties  and  the 
religion  of  the  country,  and  beheaded.  The  king 
himself,  in  1648,  shared  the  same  fate.  During 
the  Commonwealth,  and  the  Protectorate  of  Crom- 
well, until  the  restoration  of  Charles  IL,  the  Pres- 
Dyterians   and   Independents    had    the    principal 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  299 

8way.  And  it  is  melancholy  still  to  witness  a 
spirit  of  exclusion  and  intolerance. 

The  famous  Westminster  Assembly  of  divines 
was  called  together,  A.  D.  164:^,  by  the  English 
parliament,  in  order  to  aid  them  by  their  counsel, 
in  settling  the  government,  worship,  and  doctrines 
of  the  English  church.  They  were  men  of  diller- 
ent  sentiments,  Presbyterians,  Erastians,  and  In- 
dependents,  with  some  moderate  Episcopalians. 
But  a  great  majority  were  Presbyterians.  This 
Assembly  drew  up  that  Confession  of  Faith,  Cate- 
chisms and  form  of  government,  which  are  still 
retained,  with  very  slight  alterations,  by  the  Pres- 
byterian church,  both  in  Scotland  and  America. 

"  On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  to  the  throne 
of  his  father,  in  1660,  the  ancient  forms  of  eccle- 
siastical government,  and  public  worship  returned 
also,  and  the  bishops  recovered  their  lost  dignities. 
Those  who  preferred  other  forms,  or  the  Non-con- 
formists, as  they  were  called  in  England,  expected 
that  some  place  would  be  assigned  to  them  in  the 
church  ;  but  their  hopes  were  quickly  disappoint- 
ed. For  Charles  again  placed  bishops  over  the 
Scots,  who  were  so  religiously  attached  to  the 
Genevan  discipline ;  and  likewise  over  the  Irish. 
And,  afterwards,  in  the  year  1662,  all  those  who 
refused  to  subject  themselves  to  the  rites  and  in- 
stitutions of  the  English  church,  were,  by  a  public 
law,  separated  wholly  from  its  communion." 
This  was  the  famous  Act  of  Uniformity,  which 
required  all  clergymen,  not  only  to  use  the  liturgy, 
but  also  to  renounce  and  condemn  the  solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  Presbyterian  ordination, 
and  all  efforts  for  changing  the  present  establish- 
ment. In  consequence  of  this  act,  about  two 
thousand   ministers,  chiefly   Presbyterians,  were 


300  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

turned  out  of  their  churches,  because  they  could 
not  conform  to  the  law.  At  the  same  time,  all  the 
old  laws  against  conventicles,  neglect  of  the  parish 
churches,  <Slc.,  were  revived :  and  these  subjectea 
all  Non-conformists  to  a  civil  prosecution.  The) 
continued  therefore  to  suffer  many  inconveniences, 
and  sometimes  bloody  persecution,  until  the  Tol- 
eration Act,  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary, 
A.  D.  1689.  This  Act  provides  that  all  dissent- 
ers from  the  church  of  England,  except  Papists 
and  Anti-trinitarians,  shall,  by  taking  an  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  subscribing  to  the  doctrinal  part 
of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  be  exempted  from  all 
penalties  prescribed  by  the  Acts  which  enforce 
uniformity  ;  and  be  allowed  to  erect  houses  of 
worship,  have  their  own  preachers,  and  to  meet 
and  worship  according  to  their  own  views,  provided 
they  do  not  when  met,  lock  or  bolt  their  doors. 
They  are  not,  however,  exempted  from  tithes,  and 
other  payments  for  the  support  of  the  established 
churches  ;  nor  are  they  excused  from  the  oaths  re- 
quired by  the  Corporation  and  Test  Acts,  which 
exclude  Non-conformists  from  all  civil  offices.  In 
consequence  of  their  persecutions  and  oppressions, 
multitudes  of  the  Non-conformists,  from  time  to 
time,  emigrated  to  America,  and  planted  flourish- 
ing colonies  and  churches  in  this  land  of  freedom. 
The  first  of  these  emigrants  landed  at  Plymouth 
tlock,  A.  D.  1620. 

XXIII.  The  Arminians  were  also  called  Re- 
monstrants, from  a  petition  they  presented  to  the 
States  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland,  in  1610, 
which  was  called  a  Remonstrance.  The  cause 
of  Arminius  was  sustained  by  some  of  the  first 
men  in  the  commonwealth,  such  as  John  van  01- 
denbarnevelt,  Hugo  Grotius,  and  Rombout  Hoc- 


SEVENTEENTH     CENTUKY.  301 

geroeets ;  for  which  the  tirst  was  condemned  to 
suffer  capital  punishment,  and  the  others  impris- 
oned, through  the  influence  of  Maurice  the  prince 
of  Orange.  After  the  Arminians  were  condemned 
and  excommunicated  by  the  Synod  of  Dort,  as  be- 
fore stated,  they  were  driven  from  all  their  offices, 
both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  their  ministers  were 
prohibited  from  preaching ;  and  their  congrega- 
tions were  suppressed.  Refusing  to  submit  to  the 
two  last  of  these  hard  decrees,  they  were  subjected 
to  fines,  imprisonments,  and  various  other  punish- 
ments. Many  of  them  retired  to  Antwerp,  others 
to  France,  and  a  considerable  number  to  Holstein, 
where  they  were  kindly  received  by  Frederic,  the 
duke ;  and  where  they  built  for  themselves  a 
town  which  they  called  Frederickstadt, 

After  the  death  of  Maurice,  in  1625,  they  were 
permitted  to  return  to  Holland,  as  many  as  chose, 
and  were  restored  to  their  former  reputation  and 
tranquillity.  They  founded  a  distinguished  school 
at  Amsterdam  ;  which  has  had  some  very  eminent 
professors,  as  Simon  Episcopius,  Stephen  Curcel- 
leeus,  Philip  Limborch,  John  Le  Clerc,  and  John 
James  Wetstein.  The  Arminians  in  Holland  be- 
came more  latitudinarian,  bordering  on  Socinian 
sentiments,  and  have  not  increased  much.  Armi- 
nian  doctrines,  however,  have  prevailed  very  ex- 
tensively in  many  parts  of  the  world.  In  the 
church  of  England,  although  ten  Articles  remain 
unchanged,  and  are  decidedly  Calvinistic,  yet 
Arminian  sentiments  have  prevailed  since  the 
days  of  Laud.  But  Arminians  differ  in  many  re- 
spects among  themselves,  and  are  uniform  only 
in  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  decrees  and  reproba- 
*  o. 

tKIV.  The  parent  of  the  sect  called  Quakers, 
26 


302  ECCLESIASTICAL    IlISTOKY. 

which  sprung  up  in  Enij,liin(l  in  the  time  of  the 
civil  wars,  about  the  year  1050,  was  George  Fox, 
a  shoemaker  ;  a  man  of  no  education,  of  naturally 
a  strong  mind,  but  gloomy  and  visionary.  He 
professed  to  be  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  travelled  about  preaching,  and  exhort- 
ing the  people  to  attend  to  the  voice  of  the  divine 
word,  which  lies  concealed  in  the  hearts  of  all. 
He  sometimes  interrupted  worshipping  assemblies, 
by  speaking  out  in  them ;  for  which  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  magistrates,  and  several  times 
very  severely  handled  by  the  mob.  He  soon  col- 
lected a  number  of  disciples,  some  of  whom  seem 
to  have  been  delirious  fanatics ;  but  by  degrees, 
they  became  a  sober,  harmless,  inoffensive  people. 
The  first  men  of  learning  and  influence,  who  con- 
nected themselves  with  the  sect,  were  Robert 
Barclay,  George  Keith,  and  Samuel  Fisher ;  who 
assisted  Fox  in  reducing  his  scheme  to  a  regular 
system.  For  a  long  time  they  endured  much  suf- 
fering, and  were  severely  punished ;  because,  on 
.conscientious  principles,  they  refused  to  address 
magistrates  by  their  honorary  titles,  and  to  pay 
them  customary  respect ;  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  king ;  to  pay  tithes  to  the  clergy, 
&c.  Under  James  II.,  however,  they  began  to 
see  better  days :  and  William  III.  finally  granted 
to  them,  as  to  other  dissenters,  the  enjoyment  of 
public  hberty  and  tranquillity. 

Oppressed  at  home,  the  Quakers  attempted  to 
propagate  their  sentiments  abroad,  and  to  obtain  a 
footino;  in  foreign  nations.  Efforts  of  this  sort 
were  made  in  Germany,  Prussia,  France,  Italy, 
Greece,  Holland,  and  Holstein ;  but  generally 
without  success.  William  Penn,  the  son  of  the 
English  vice-admiral,  united  with  the  Quakers  in 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  303 

1668,  to  whom  Charles  II.,  and  the  parliament, 
granted  an  extensive  province  in  North  America, 
now  called  Pennsylvania.  Thither  he,  with  many 
of  the  Quakers,  went, near  the  end  of  this  century. 
Other  denominations,  however,  were  not  excluded ; 
and  the  colony  was  established  on  the  most  liberal 
and  peaceable  principles. — The  religion  of  the 
Quakers  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  ancient 
Mystics.  They  discard  external  forms,  and  make 
religion  consist  in  attending  to  the  suggestions  of 
the  internal  Word,  the  divine  light  within.  They 
professed  to  believe  in  the  divinity  of  the  Saviour, 
the  atonement,  &c.  But  of  late  a  large  party  of 
them,  called  Hicksites,  from  their  leader,  Elias 
Hicks,  have  professed  Unitarian  sentiments.  The 
number  of  Quakers  at  the  present  time  is  estimat- 
ed as  follows  ;  in  England  and  Ireland  forty  thou- 
sand ;  in  Scotland  not  much  over  three  hundred ; 
in  the  United  States  two  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand. 

XXV.  The  following  account  of  the  English 
Baptists,  I  copy  from  Dr.  Murdock's  note.  "  Most 
of  the  Anabaptists  mentioned  in  English  history, 
prior  to  the  reign  of  James  I.,  appear  to  have  been 
either  Dutch  and  other  foreign  Anabaptists,  who 
endeavoured  to  establish  themselves  in  England, 
or  small  companies  of  converts  made  by  them  in 
the  country.  Yet  there  were  probably  many  in- 
dividuals among  the  people,  who  questioned  or 
denied,  the  propriety  ol'inlant  baptism  ;  and  there 
are  some  intimations  of  attempts,  by  such  persons, 
to  hold  conventicles,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth.  But  the  first  regular  congregation 
of  English  Baptists,  appears  to  have  originated 
from  certain  English  Puritans  who  returned  from 
Holland  after  the  death  of  their  pastor.  Rev.  John 


801  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

Smith,  who  died  in  1610.  These  were  General 
or  Arminian  Baptists;  and  may  be  supposed  to 
have  derived  many  of  their  opinions  from  the 
Mennonites.  From  this  time  onward,  churches 
of  General  Baptists  were  formed,  here  and  there, 
in  diiferent  parts  of  England.  But  in  general, 
they  made  no  great  figure,  and  do  not  appear  to 
have  had  much  connexion,  or  to  have  professed 
one  uniform  faith.  The  Particular  or  Calvinistic 
Baptists  trace  their  origin  to  a  congregation  of 
Independents,  established  in  London  in  the  year 
1616,  This  congregation  having  become  very 
large,  and  some  of  them  differing  from  the  others, 
on  the  subject  of  infant  baptism,  they  agreed  to 
divide.  Those  who  disbelieved  in  infant  baptism 
were  regularly  dismissed,  in  1633,  and  formed 
into  a  new  church,  under  Rev.  John  Spilsbury. 
In  1638,  several  more  members  were  dismissed 
to  Mr.  Spilsbury's  church.  And  in  1639,  a  new 
Baptist  church  was  formed.  Churches  of  Pai-ticu-  ■ 
lar  Baptists  now  multiplied  rapidly.  In  1646, 
there  were  forty-six,  in  and  about  London.  They 
published  a  confession  of  their  faith  in  1643, 
which  was  re-printed  in  1644,  and  in  1646 :  and 
which  was  revised  in  1689  by  a  convention  of 
elders  and  delegates  from  more  than  one  hundred 
churches  in  England  and  Wales.  Besides  these, 
there  were,  at  that  time,  several  churches  of  Cal- 
vinistic Baptists,  who  held  to  open  communion, 
especially  in  Bedfordshire,  where  John  Bunyan 
preached.  There  were  also  some  seventh  day 
Baptists.  Baptist  churches  were  also  planted  in 
Ireland,  in  the  times  of  the  civil  wars,  and  Roger 
Williams  established  a  Baptist  church  in  Provi- 
dence (Rhode  Island,)  in  1639,  which  was  the 
commencement  of  this  denomination  in  America, 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  305 

On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1660,  the 
Baptists,  with  all  other  Non-conformists,  were  ex- 
posed to  great  troubles  and  persecutions ;  and  at 
the  revolution,  in  1688,  they,  with  the  other  dis- 
senters, obtained  free  toleration.  Among  the 
English  Baptists  of  this  century  were  some  men 
of  education  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  their  preach- 
ers were  not  men  of  learning.  The  Particular 
Baptists  at  their  general  convention  in  1689,  made 
arrangements  for  the  better  education  of  young 
men  for  their  pulpits ;  and  from  their  provisions 
originated  afterwards,  the  famous  Baptist  Academy 
at  Bristol.  Before  the  erection  of  regular  Baptist 
congregations,  and  indeed  for  some  time  after,  it 
was  very  common  for  Baptists  and  others  to  be- 
long to  the  same  church,  and  to  worship  and  com- 
mune together.  From  their  first  rise,  the  Baptists 
were  assailed  for  holding  only  to  adult  baptism, 
and  that  by  immersion  :  and  they  were  not  back- 
ward to  defend  themselves.  The  severest  conflict 
of  the  Particular  Baptists,  was  with  the  Quakers, 
m  the  time  of  William  Penn.  One  of  their  wri- 
ters made  statements  for  which  the  Quakers  ac- 
cused him  of  falsehood  ;  which  caused  violent  an- 
imosities, and  much  mutual  crimination.  The 
Particular  Baptists  had  also  controversies  among 
themselves.  One  was,  respecting  their  practice 
of  confirmation,  or  imposing  hands  on  those  new- 
ly baptized.  Another  related  to  the  propriety  of 
admitting  singing,  as  a  part  of  their  public  wor- 
ship. The  Particular  Baptists  scarcely  differed  at 
all,  from  the  Independents,  except  on  the  mode 
and  subjects  of  baptism.  The  General  Baptists 
having  no  bond  of  union  among  themselves,  held 
a  considerable  diversity  of  opinions  ;  and  as  they 
did  not  set  forth  full  and  explicit  accounts  of  their 
26* 


806  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

faith,  it  is  impossible  to  characterize  them,  other- 
wise than  by  saying,  they  in  general  laid  little 
stress  on  doctrines,  and  allowed  great  liberty  of 
opinion." 

XXVI.  In  the  beginning  of  this  century,  the 
Socinians  were  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  Tran- 
sylvania and  Poland.  They  were  in  the  full  en- 
joyment of  religious  liberty ;  had  a  distinguished 
school  at  Racow,  furnished  with  teachers  eminent 
for  learning  and  talents  ;  a  printing  establishment; 
numerous  congregations,  and  many  patrons,  who 
were  men  of  the  highest  rank.  They  made  great 
efforts  to  extend  their  church,  and  to  obtain  friends 
and  patrons  in  other  countries.  They  attempted, 
by  their  emissaries,  to  make  proselytes  among  the 
great  and  the  learned,  in  Holland,  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Prussia.  But  their  efforts  were  at- 
tended with  little  success.  Nor  did  they  long 
maintain  their  standing  in  Poland;  for,  in  1638, 
some  students  of  the  school  at  Racow,  wantonly 
threw  stones  at  a  l^ooden  statue  of  our  Saviour 
extended  on  the  cross,  and  demolished  it.  For 
this  offence,  the  Papists  procured  a  law  to  be  en- 
acted at  Warsaw  which  commanded  the  school  at 
Racow  to  be  broken  up,  the  instructors  to  be 
banished  in  disgrace,  the  printing  establishment  to 
be  destroyed,  and  the  Socinian  church  to  be  shut 
up  ;  all  which  was  executed.  This  was  followed 
by  far  worse  treatment  in  1658;  when  all  the 
Socinians,  dispersed  throughout  Poland,  were 
commanded  to  quit  the  country  ;  and  it  was  made 
a  capital  offence,  either  to  profess  their  doctrines, 
or  to  harbour  others  who  professed  them.  They 
had  three  years  allowed  them  in  which  to  dispose 
of  their  property,  and  settle  their  affairs ;  which 
were  afterwards  reduced  to  two.     Finally,  in  the 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  307 

year  1661,  the  tremendous  edict  was  renewed; 
and  all  the  Socinians  that  remained,  were  most 
inhumanly  driven  from  Poland,  with  immense 
loss,  not  merely  of  property,  but  also  of  the  health, 
and  the  lives  of  many  persons.  These  exiles  dis- 
persed into  the  provinces  adjacent  to  Poland,  Sile- 
sia, Brandenburg,  Prussia,  &c.  Their  descend- 
ants are  still  found  in  various  countries  of  Europe, 
especially  in  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  England,  and 
Holland. 


CENTURY   XVIIl. 


1.  Romish  Missions. — 2.  Protestant  Missions. — 3.  Infidelity. — 
4.  The  Bull  Unigenitus. — 5-  Jesuits  andJansenists. — 6.  Greek 
and  Lutheran  churches. — 7.  Moravians. — 8.  British  churches. 
— 9,  Churches  in  the  United  States — Presbyterian.  —  10. 
Episcopalian. — 11.  Methodist. — 12.  Baptist. 


I.  The  Jesuits,  and  others  among  the  Catholics, 
continued  their  exertions  to  propagate  Christianity, 
or  rather  Romanism,  in  foreign  parts  ;  and  their 
success  was  considerable  in  the  East  Indies ;  es- 
pecially in  the  kingdoms  of  Carnate,  Madura,  and 
Maravia,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  and  in  China, 
Tonquin,  and  elsewhere ;  and  also  in  some  pro- 
vinces of  America.  The  question  which  had  been 
much  agitated  in  the  Catholic  church,  whether  the 
Jesuits  residing  in  China,  had  advocated  the  cause 
of  Christ  well  or  ill,  in  permitting  their  converts 
still  to  retain  their  ancient  rites  and  ceremonies, 
was  decided,  in  1704,  by  Clement  XI.  in  a  man- 


308  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ner  adverse  to  the  Jesuits,  This  decree,  however, 
was  considerably  mitigated  in  1715  ;  and  th«.'  Cfii- 
nese  Christians  were  permitted  to  keep  in  their 
houses,  tablets,  on  which  are  written,  in  golden 
letters,  the  names  of  their  ancestors  and  of  Con- 
fucius ;  and  to  honour  them  with  lighted  candles, 
with  incense,  and  with  tables  set  out  with  viands, 
fruits,  and  spices ;  nay  they  may  even  address 
these  tablets,  and  the  graves  of  their  ancestors,  as 
supplicants,  prostrating  themselves  to  the  ground  : 
provided  all  superstition  and  appearance  of  reli- 
gion be  avoided  ;  and  that  these  rites  be  regarded 
as  mere  testimonies  of  respect  to  their  ancestors, 
or  as  civil  honours.  All  this  concession,  however, 
did  not  satisfy  the  Emperor  of  China,  who  is  utter- 
ly opposed  to  allowing  any  innovation  to  be  made 
in  the  ancient  customs  and  institutions  of  the  coun- 
try. The  Roman  Catholic  cause  in  China  has 
therefore  long  been  in  a  languishing  and  precari- 
ous condition,  but  it  is  said,  is  by  no  means  given 
up.  In  the  Jesuit  mission  of  Tonquin,  it  is  said, 
that  in  the  year  1826,  they  baptized  children  of 
believers,  three  thousand  two  hundred  and  seven- 
ty-three, and  of  unbelievers,  about  one  thousand  ; 
adults  one  thousand  and  six,  confirmed  baptisms 
administered  by  catechists  or  Christians,  during 
the  absence  of  a  priest,  five  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  ;  heard  confessions,  one  hun- 
dred seventy-seven  thousand,  four  hundred  and 
fifty-six;  administered  the  communion  sevenry- 
eight  thousand,  six  hundred  and  ninety-two  times  ; 
viatica,  one  thousand,  three  hundred  and  three; 
extreme  unctions,  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
six.  They  had  marriages  nine  hundred  and  for- 
ty-three, and  confirmations,  three  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  forty-one. 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY,  309 

II.  The  English  and  Dutch  made  increasing 
efforts  to  spread  the  knowledge  of  Christianity 
among  the  nations  of  Asia  and  America.  Fred- 
erick IV.,  king  of  Denmark,  sent  out  missionaries 
in  1706,  to  preach  Christian  truth  to  the  Indians 
on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  who  met  with  considera- 
ble success.  The  Moravians  established  missions 
in  many  parts  of  the  world  during  this  century  ; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  the  nineteenth  century  to 
enkindle  and  develope  the  missionary  spirit,  as  it 
now  exists  in  almost  all  evangelical  churches. 

III.  Infidelity  found  not  a  few  advocates,  espe- 
cially in  England  and  Holland,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Among  these  were 
John  Toland,  Anthony  Collins,  Matthias  Tindal, 
Thos.  Woolaston,  Thomas  Morgan,  John  Chubb, 
and  John  Mandeville.  Most  of  these  writers  were 
ably  answered  by  John  Leland,  in  his  View  of 
Deistical  Writers. 

IV.  The  popes  of  this  century  were  said  to  be 
of  much  better  character  than  those  of  former 
times.  Efforts  had  been  made  to  gain  over  Pro- 
testants, by  explaining  away  and  lowering  down 
the  most  offensive  Romish  doctrines  :  but  Clement 
XI.,  by  publishing  the  famous  decree  called  the 
Bull  Unigenitus,  in  1714,  discovered  that  the  doc- 
trines of  the  church  of  Rome  were  precisely  the 
same  that  they  had  been  at  the  Reformation.  This 
Bull  was  issued  against  the  French  translation  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  notes,  by  Pnsquier 
Quesnel^  priest  of  the  Oratory,  and  a  celebrated 
Jansenist.  It  condemned  one  hundred  and  one 
propositions  of  the  notes  ;  such  as — Grace  the 
effectual  principle  of  all  good  works ;  faith  the 
fountain  of  all  the  graces  of  a  Christian  ;  the  Scrip- 
tures should  be  read  by  all,  &;c.     This  Bullexcit- 


810  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

ed  terrible  commotions  in  France  ;  where  many 
espoused  the  cause  of  Quesnel,  and  refusing  to 
submit  to  it,  appealed  to  a  future  council.  But 
Louis  XIV.,  influenced  by  the  Jesuits,  made  it  the 
law  of  the  land  :  and  in  consequence,  many  be- 
came exiles,  and  retired  among  their  brethren  in 
Holland  ;  others  were  coerced  by  violence  and  fear, 
to  approve  the  decree  of  the  pontiff;  and  others, 
being  deprived  of  their  livings,  their  honours,  and 
their  offices,  removed  to  foreign  countries. 

V.  The  contests  between  the  Jesuits  and  Do- 
minicans ;  between  the  Dominicans,  and  Francis- 
cans ;  and  especially  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jan- 
senists,  continued  to  rage  with  no  little  animosity. 
The  Jansenists  undertook  to  establish  their  cause 
by  miracles  ;  and  gave  out,  that  God  had  impart- 
ed to  the  ashes  and  bones  of  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  their  party,  the  power  of  healing 
the  most  inveterate  diseases.  The  most  celebra- 
ted of  these  was  Francis  de  Paris,  a  man  of  noble 
birth,  but  gloomy  and  superstitious,  and  who  had 
voluntarily  brought  on  his  own  death,  by  abstin- 
ence from  food,  and  other  self  tortures.  To  mira- 
cles, divine  visions  were  superadded  ;  and  many 
professed  to  be  actuated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
uttered  prophecies,  often  of  the  most  insipid  char- 
acter. Among  the  Jansenists,  however,  were 
many  learned,  able,  and  worthy  advocates  of  the 
truth;  and  in  this  respect,  they  far  excelled  the 
Jesuits.  This  powerful  fraternity  (the  Jesuits)  had 
arrived  at  such  a  pitch  of  pride,  and  wealth,  and 
insolence,  as  began  to  draw  down  upon  them  a 
general  feeling  of  hatred  and  disgust.  And  this 
was  greatly  increased  by  the  Provincial  Letters  of 
Pascal,  which  had  been  published  in  the  preceding 
century,  and  by  the  writings  of  Voltaire,  and  other 


EIGHTEEXTIT    CENTURY.  311 

wits  of  that  day.  Their  ruin,  therefore,  came  on 
apace.  In  1762,  the  order  was  abolished  in 
France,  by  act  of  parliament,  as  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  the  state,  to  the  obedience  due  to  the  sov- 
ereign, and  to  the  welfare  of  the  kingdom.  Their 
effects  were  alienated,  but  they  were  permitted  to 
reside  in  the  kingdom,  under  certain  restrictions. 
In  Spain  their  ruin  was  most  sudden  and  unexpect- 
ed. At  midnight,  March  31,  1767,  large  bodies 
of  military  surrounded  the  six  colleges  of  Jesuits 
in  Madrid,  forced  the  gates,  secured  the  bells,  col- 
lected the  fathers  in  the  refectory,  and  read  to 
them  the  king's  order  for  their  transportation. 
They  were  immediately  shipped  to  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal states  in  Italy.  The  like  was  done  three  days 
after,  with  every  other  college  of  the  order  in  the 
kingdom.  All  their  property  was  confiscated,  and 
only  a  small  pension  assigned  to  each,  so  long  as 
he  should  remain  quiet  and  peaceable  in  the  place 
appointed  him.  A  similar  seizure  and  deporta- 
tion took  place  in  the  Indies,  and  an  immense  pro- 
perty was  acquired  by  the  government.  Spain 
was  soon  followed  by  most  other  governments  of 
Europe,  that  had  not  already  expelled  them  :  and 
in  1773,  the  order  was  entirely  suppressed  by  pope 
Clement  XIV.,  who  is  supposed  afterwards  to  have 
fallen  a  victim  to  their  revenge.  But  in  August 
1814,  a  bull  was  issued  by  pope  Pius  VII.,  restor- 
ing the  order  to  all  their  former  privileges,  and 
calling  upon  all  Roman  Catholic  princes  to  afford 
them  protection  and  encouragement.  And  now 
these  sworn  friends,  and  liege  subjects  of  the  Pope, 
are  putting  extensively  into  practice,  all  their 
missionary  and  proselyting  arts,  in  these  United 
States. 

VI.  Of  the  Greek  Church   in  the  eighteenth 


312  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

century,  nothing  particular  can  be  said.  The 
Russians,  under  the  guidance  of  Peter  the  Great, 
adopted  some  better  regulations  for  their  church  ,• 
and  efforts  were  made  to  extend  the  influences  of 
Christianity  over  the  savage  tribes  inhabiting  Si- 
beria. In  the  Lutheran  church,  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  very  great  falling  off  from  the  truth 
and  simplicity  of  the  gospel,  from  about  the  mid- 
dle of  this  century.  The  divines  and  doctors  of 
that  church,  forsaking  the  simple  truths  of  the 
Bible,  betook  themselves  to  philosophy  and  meta- 
physics ;  and  made  these  the  standard  of  truth,  in- 
stead of  the  word  of  God.  And  hence  sprung 
that  neology  and  rationalism,  that  have  almost 
taken  away  the  foundations  of  truth,  and  substi- 
tuted a  refined  idealism  for  Christianity. 

VII.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century,  the  Mo- 
ravians settled  at  Herrnhut,  in  Lusatia,  under  the 
patronage  of  Count  Zinzendorf.  They  were  at 
first  few  in  number;  but  they  very  soon  in- 
creased, and  sent  out  missionaries  into  various 
parts  of  the  world.  Count  Zinzendorf  himself 
became  one  of  their  preachers,  and  travelled  ex- 
tensively through  Germany  and  Denmark ;  visited 
London  in  1737,  came  to  America  in  1742, 
preached  at  Germantown  and  Bethlehem,  in 
Pennsylvania,  visited  various  Indian  tribes,  and 
established  the  first  Indian  Moravian  congregation 
in  North  America.  As  early  as  the  year  1765, 
this  extraordinary  people  had  established  various 
missionary  stations,  in  the  West  Indies,  among 
the  negroes, — in  Greenland, — in  North  America, 
among  the  Indians, — at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
— in  South  America,  among  the  negroes  and 
Indians, — and  in  Asiatic  Russia.  In  their  settle- 
ments, of  which  there  are  several  in  the  United 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  313 

States,  the  Moravians  hold  a  community  of  goods, 
and  have  several  other  regulations  that  are  singu- 
lar; but  they  maintain  the  character  of  a  decidedly 
pious,  industrious,  and  upright  people.  In  regard 
to  religious  doctrines,  they  hold  to  the  Augsburgh 
Conlession  ;  but  are  by  no  means  bigoted  or  in- 
tolerant. 

Vlll.  In  England,  while  the  Episcopal  Church 
is  the  established  church,  and  enjoys  all  the  pri- 
vileges and  prerogatives  that  the  state  can  confer, 
yet  all  other  denominations  have  been  tolerated, 
under  the  name  o^  Dissenters,  since  William  III., 
Prince  of  Orange,  came  to  the  throne,  in  1689.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  origi- 
nated what  was  called  the  Bangorian  controversy, 
from  Benjamin  Hoadley,  Bishop  of  Bangor.  He 
advocated  what  has  since  been  called  low  church 
principles,  against  spiritual  tyranny,  and  the  ex- 
clusive claims  of  episcopacy,  and  in  favour  of  the 
civil  and  religious  liberties  of  mankind.  He  was 
learnedly  and  eloquently  answered  by  archbishop 
Potter  and  others,  who  strenuously  contended  for 
the  prerogatives  and  authority  of  the  church. 

About  the  middle  of  this  century,  a  very  extra- 
ordinary revival  of  religion  took  place,  which  ex- 
tended through  many  parts  of  England,  Ireland, 
Scotland,  and  these  then  British  colonies,  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Wesleys,  Whitefield,  Hervey, 
Fletcher,  and  others.  They  were  at  first  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Church  of  England,  and  White- 
field  and  Hervey  continued  that  connexion,  hold- 
ing as  they  did  Calvinistic  doctrines,  and  differing 
in  that  respect  from  the  Wesleys.  John  Wesley, 
a  man  of  great  learning  and  piety,  and  of  singular 
zeal  and  perseverance,  organized  and  established 
the  society  of  Wesleyan  Methodists,  which  has 
27 


314  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

flourished  and  spread  so  extensively,  especially  in 
England,  Ireland,  and  these  United  States.  This 
very  extensive  and  respectable  connexion  are,  in 
their  church  order  and  forms,  in  many  respects, 
similar  to  the  Church  of  England,  but  in  their 
doctrine,  they  are  Arminian.  Another  connexion 
arose  about  the  same  time,  called  Lady  Hunting' 
donh^  which  still  exists,  if  I  mistake  not,  as  a 
separate  connexion.  This  pious  and  munificent 
lady  expended  the  most  of  an  ample  fortune  in 
building  chapels,  and  maintaining  preachers  in 
destitute  places,  and  wherever  there  was  the  pros- 
pect of  doing  good,  especially  in  London,  and 
throughout  Wales.  The  preachers  she  employed 
were  chiefly  of  the  established  church  ;  but  their 
course  giving  offence  to  the  bishop  of  London,  he 
threatened  to  expel  them,  if  they  persisted  ;  upon 
which  they  withdrew,  formed  a  Coniession  of 
Faith,  and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
the  toleration  act,  A.  D.  1777. 

IX.  The  Presbyterian  church  commenced  in 
this  country,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  gradually  increased  and  spread, 
chiefly  among  emigrants  from  Scotland  and  the 
north  of  Ireland,  and  their  descendants.  In  1716, 
the  first  Synod  was  formed,  comprising  the  four 
presbyteries  of  Philadelphia,  Newcastle,  Snow 
Hill,  and  Long  Island.  It  was  not  long  before  a 
serious  difference  took  place,  and  parties  were 
formed.  They  who  were  most  zealous  for  strict 
orthodoxy,  for  adherence  to  presbyterial  order, 
and  for  a  learned  ministry,  were  called  the  "  old 
side ;"  while  they  who  laid  a  greater  stress  on 
vital  piety  than  on  any  other  qualification,  and 
who  were  less  strenuous  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical 
order  and  learning,  were  called  the  "  new  side," 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  315 

or  "  new  lights."  This  unhappy  state  of  things 
continued  to  increase,  until,  in  1741,  the  Synod 
was  rent  asunder ;  and  the  Synod  of  New  York, 
composed  of  "  new  side"  men,  was  set  up  in  op- 
position to  that  of  Philadelphia,  which  retained 
the  original  name,  and  comprehended  all  the  "  old 
side"  men  that  belonged  to  the  general  body. 
This  schism  existed  for  seventeen  years.  After 
several  years  spent  in  negotiations,  mutual  conces- 
sions being  made,  a  re-union  of  the  two  Synods 
was  effected,  in  1758,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Sy- 
nod of  New  York  and  Philadelphia."  After  this 
union,  they  went  on  to  increase  in  numbers  and 
harmony,  until  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary 
war,  when  they  could  number  about  one  hundred 
and  seventy  ministers.  In  1788,  the  public 
standards  of  the  Church,  after  being  carefully  re- 
vised, were  adopted  ;  and  the  present  organization 
established,  differing  very  little  from  that  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  By  this  arrangement,  the 
body  was  divided  into  four  Synods,  viz : — the 
Synod  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  the  Synod 
of  Philadelphia,  the  Synod  of  Virginia,  and  the 
Synod  of  the  Carolinas ;  and  over  these  was 
constituted,  as  a  bond  of  union,  the  General  As- 
sembly. 

X.  The  Episcopal  Church  was  planted  in  these 
colonies  by  the  first  emigrants  from  England ; 
but  no  bishops  were  sent  over,  and  of  course,  no 
ordinations  could  take  place  here,  until  after  the 
revolutionary  war.  At  a  meeting  in  New  York, 
in  1784,  it  was  determined  that  application  should 
be  made  to  the  prelates  of  the  Church  of  England, 
for  episcopal  ordination.  The  Rev.  William 
White,  D.  D.  of  Philadelphia,  and  the  Rev.  Sam- 
uel Provost,  D.  D.  of  New  York,  were  sent  over 


316  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

to  England  for  this  purpose,  and  were  consecrated 
bishops,  in  the  chapel  of  the  archiopiscopal  palace 
of  Lambeth,  by  the  most  Reverend  John  Moore, 
arch-bishop  of  Canterbury,  being  assisted  by  sev- 
eral other  bishops.  The  Rev.  James  Madison, 
D.  D.  also  received  consecration  in  England. 
These  together  with  the  Rev.  Samuel  Seabury, 
who  had  been  previously  consecrated  in  Scotland, 
proceeded  in  1792,  at  a  convention  held  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  to  consecrate  the  Rev.  Thomas 
John  Clagget,  bishop  of  Maryland,  who  was  the 
first  bishop  consecrated  on  American  ground. 
Since  that  time,  the  number  of  bishops  has  in- 
creased to  sixteen,  and  that  of  other  clergymen  to 
six  hundred  and  forty-eight.  The  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  of  the  Church  of  England,  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  the 
United  States,  with  some  very  slight  omissions 
and  alterations. 

XI.  The  first  Methodist  class  in  America  was 
formed  in  the  city  of  New  York  by  Mr.  Philip 
Embury,  in  1766.  But  Dr.  Coke  first  organized 
the  church  in  a  regular  form,  at  a  meeting  held 
for  conference  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  in  the 
year  1784,  when  sixty-one  preachers  were  present. 
According  to  instructions  received  from  Mr.  Wes- 
ley, Mr.  Asbury,  who  was  unanimously  elected 
by  the  suffrages  of  his  brethren,  was  first  ordained 
deacon,  then  elder,  and  afterwards  bishop,  by  Dr. 
Coke,  with  the  assistance  of  the  presbyters  present. 
The  first  delegated  general  conference  was  held  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  in  May,  1812.  There 
were  at  that  time  six  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
travelling  preachers.  In  1883,  there  were  five 
bishops,  twenty. two  annual  conferences,  and  two 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  317 

thousand     two    hundred    and    thirty    travelling 
preachers. 

XII.  The  first  Baptist  Church  in  the  United 
States  was  founded  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
by  Roger  Williams,  A.  D.  1639,  as  has  already 
been  mentioned  in  the  seventeenth  century.  What 
progress  they  made  at  the  north,  at  an  early 
period,  I  am  not  able  to  say.  But  they  were  not 
known  in  Virginia  and  further  south,  until  about 
seventy  or  eighty  years  ago.  They  at  first  met 
with  great  opposition,  and  in  Virginia,  with  direct 
persecution  ;  their  preachers  being  several  times 
imprisoned,  fined,  pilloried,  and  whipped.  But 
their  plain  style,  great  zeal,  and  peculiar  manner, 
accompanied  with  fervent  piety,  excited  great 
attention,  and  gained  many  converts.  They 
spread  and  increased  very  rapidly  ;  and  are  now, 
perhaps,  the  most  numerous  denomination  of 
Christians  in  the  United  States,  numbering  three 
hundred  and  nine  associations,  and  three  thousand 
two  hundred  and  four  ordained  ministers.  The 
Baptists  in  the  United  States  are  generally  Calvin- 
istic  in  their  doctrines,  and  congregational  or  in- 
dependent, in  their  church  government. 


27 


APPEr^DIX. 


TO    THE    REV.    JAMES    WHAREY. 

Rev,  and  Dear  Brother — 
You  request  me  to  give  some  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion, why  in  the  "  History  of  the  Waidenses,"  by 
Mr.  William  Jones,  of  the  Baptist  denomination, 
which  has  been  extensively  circulated  in  the 
United  States,  nothing  appears  to  indicate  the 
psedobaptist  belief  and  practice  of  those  far-famed 
witnesses  of  the  truth  ?  In  reply  to  this  inquiry, 
I  have  only  to  say,  that  two  facts  are  unquestion- 
able. The  one  fact  is,  that  the  ancient  records 
of  the  Waidenses  do  contain  abundant  and  con- 
clusive evidence  that  they  did  baptize  their  child- 
ren. The  other  fact  is,  that  Mr.  Jones  has  care- 
fully withheld  all  the  evidences  of  this  fact  from 
his  readers.  What  were  his  motives  for  doing 
this,  and  how  he  reconciled  it  with  historical  can- 
dour and  verity,  are  questions  which  it  is  not  in- 
cumbent on  me  to  answer,  and  on  which  I  dare 
not  pronounce.  They  must  be  submitted  to  the 
judgment  of  every  impartial  reader.  But  both 
facts  are  unquestionable. 

1.  As  to  the  first  fact,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go 
into  much  detail,  but  on  the  accuracy  of  the  fol- 
lowing quotations  you  may  rely. 

In  an  old  "  Defence,"  which  the  Waidenses  of 
318 


ArrENDix.  319 

Bohemia  sent  to  Ladislaus,  their  king,  who  had 
severely  persecuted  them,  dated  A.  D.  1508,  about 
ten  years  beibre  the  Reformation  by  Luther  com- 
menced, they  repel  a  number  of  calumnies,  which 
had  been  circulated  against  them  by  the  Roman- 
ists. In  this  defence  we  find  the  following  une- 
quivocal passage : 

"  The  fourth  calumny  was  concerning  Baptism, 
which  it  was  said,  they  denied  to  little  infants,  but 
from  this  imputation  they  acquit  themselves  as  fol- 
lows :  Neither  is  the  time  or  place  appointed  for 
those  who  must  be  baptized.  But  charity  and  the 
edification  of  the  church  and  congregation  ought  to 
be  the  rule  in  this  matter.  Yet  notwithstanding, 
we  bring  our  children  to  be  baptized,  which  they 
ought  to  do  to  whom  they  are  nearest  related,  as 
their  parents,  or  they  whom  God  hath  inspired 
with  such  a  charity."  "  True  it  is,"  say  they, 
*'  that  being  for  some  hundreds  of  years  constrain- 
ed to  suffer  our  children  to  be  baptized  by  the  Ro- 
man priests,  we  deferred  the  doing  of  it  as  long  as 
possible,  because  we  detested  the  human  inventions 
annexed  to  the  institution  of  that  holy  Sacrament, 
which  we  looked  upon  as  pollutions  of  it.  And 
by  reason  that  our  pastors,  whom  we  call  Barbes, 
are  often  in  travels  abroad  for  the  service  of  the 
church,  we  could  not  have  baptism  administered 
to  our  children  by  our  own  ministers  ;  we  there- 
fore sometimes  kept  them  long  without  baptism, 
upon  which  delay,  the  priests  have  charged  us 
with  that  reproach."  Perrin,  Part  II.  Book  1. 
Chap.  IV. 

In  a  "Treatise  of  the  Old  Waldenses  and  Albi- 
genses,  concerning  Antichrist,  Purgatory,  Invoca- 
tion of  Saints,  and  the  Sacraments,"  and  dated  by 
Perrin  in  1220,  the  following  passage,  under  the 


320  AI'l'I.NUiX. 

head  of  Sacraments,  occur.  '  Thai  which  is  of 
no  necessity  in  the  administration  of  baptism,  is 
the  exorcism,  the  breathing  on,  the  sign  of  the 
cross  upon  the  infant's  breast  and  forehead,  the 
salt  which  they  put  into  his  mouth,  the  spittle  put 
into  his  ears  and  nose,  &c."  Pcrrin^  Part  II.  Book 
V.  Alt.  IV. 

In  a  "Brief  Confession  of  Faith,"  made  with 
general  consent  by  the  ministers  and  heads  of 
families  of  the  churches  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont, 
asseiribled  at  Augrogne,  Sept.  12,  1532,  the  fol- 
lowing explicit  declaration  is  found  : 

"  Conceriring  the  matter  of  the  Sacraments,  it 
has  been  determined  by  the  Holy  Scripture,  that 
we  have  but  two  sacramental  signs  left  us  by  Je- 
sus Christ  ;  the  one  is  Baptism,  the  other  is  the 
Eucharist,  which  we  receive  to  show  that  our  per- 
severance in  the  faith  is  such  as  we  promised  when 
we  were  baptized,  being  little  children,  and  more- 
over, in  remembrance  of  that  great  benefit  given 
to  us  by  Jesus  Christ,  when  he  died  for  our  re- 
demption, and  washed  us  with  his  precious  blood." 
Modand,  Book  I.  Chap  IV. 

Again,  Perriri  tells  us  that,  in  the  year  1506, 
that  is  about  eleven  years  before  the  Reformation 
by  Luther  commenced,  Louis  XII.  king  of  France, 
having  been  informed  that  a  certain  people  inha- 
bited a  particular  part  of  his  dominions,  who  re- 
fused to  commune  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
were  represented  as  exceedingly  corrupt  in  their 
practices,  sent  a  trusty  agent  to  visit  them  and  in- 
quire into  their  real  character  and  habits.  The 
agent  on  returning,  reported  that  he  had  found  the 
people  whom  he  had  been  charged  to  examine, 
and  that  they  were  by  no  means  so  corrupt  as  they 
had  been  represented ;  nay,  that  the  information 


AFPENDIX.  321 

which  had  been  given  concerning  the  Waldenses 
of  Provence,  was  notoriously  false ;  "  that  they 
were  not  any  ways  guilty  either  of  sorcery  or 
adultery,  but  lived  like  honest  men,  doing  no  hurt 
or  injury  to  any  man  ;  that  they  caused  their  child- 
ren to  be  baptized,  and  taught  them  the  articles  of 
the  creed,  and  the  commandments  of  God  ;  that 
they  carefully  observed  the  Lord's  day,  and  that 
the  word  of  God  was  purely  expounded  unto 
them."  Perrin,  Part  II.  Book  II.  Chap.  VIII. 

Perrin  mentions  this  report  concerning  the  Wal- 
denses in  another  place,  as  a  remarkable  instance 
of  a  testimony  in  their  favour,  extorted  from  adver- 
saries. Perrin,  Part  II.  Book  I.  Chap.  V. 

I  might  quote  several  other  passages  from  the 
early  documents  of  these  ancient  people,  but  these 
are  enough.  They  establish,  incontestably,  the 
first  fact  to  which  I  referred,  as  well  as  ten  thou- 
sand.    Now, 

2.  As  to  the  second  fact  which  I  mentioned,  it 
is  certain  that  not  a  syllable  of  the  foregoing  ex- 
tracts, or  anything  like  them,  is  to  be  found  in  Mr. 
Jones's  history.  He  refers  familiarly  to  the  works 
of  Perrin  and  Sir  Samuel  Morland,  and  speaks  of 
them  as  the  principal  sources  from  which  he  had 
drawn  his  materials,  but  carefully  excludes  every 
thing  which  they  say  that  savours  of  infant  bap- 
tism. Nay  more,  he  expressly  quotes  the  "  Treat- 
ise on  Antichrist,  &c."  and  the  "  Defence,"  sent 
to  king  Ladislaus,  and  seems  to  regard  them  as 
perfectly  authentic  documents,  worthy  of  entire 
credit,  and  proceeds  to  pick  out  from  them  what 
suited  his  purpose,  as  a  Baptist ;  but  the  facts,  so 
clearly  and  unequivocally  stated,  which  make 
against  the  Baptist  cause,  he  studiously  withholds 
from  his  readers 


322  APPENDIX. 

But  this  is  not  the  worst.  The  last  extract  above 
stated,  from  Perrin,  found  in  Book  I.  Chap.  V.  of 
his  History,  Mr.  Jones  directly  tampers  with,  and 
falsifies.  In  other  cases,  he  was  only  chargeable 
with  withholding  from  his  readers,  testimony  of 
the  most  direct  kind,  which  lay  plainly  before  him, 
and  which,  from  his  manner  of  quoting,  it  is  im- 
possible he  should  have  overlooked.  But  in  the 
case  before  us,  he  is  guilty  of  direct  forgery  !  The 
statement  in  Perrin  stands  thus  : 

"  King  Louis  XII.  having  received  information 
from  the  enemies  of  the  Waldenses,  dwelling  in 
Provence,  of  several  heinous  crimes  which  they 
fathered  upon  them,  sent  to  the  place  Monsieur 
Adam  Fumee,  Master  of  Requests,  and  a  certain 
Sorbonnist  Doctor,  called  Parui,  who  was  his  con- 
fessor, to  inquire  into  the  matter.  They  visited  all 
their  parishes  and  temples,  and  neither  found  there 
any  images,  or  sign  of  the  ornaments  belonging  to 
the  mass,  or  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  Church. 
Much  less  could  they  discover  any  of  those  crimes 
with  which  they  were  charged.  But  rather,  that 
they  kept  the  Sabbath  duly  ;  caused  their  children 
to  be  baptized,  according  to  the  primitive  Church  ; 
taught  them  the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith,  and 
the  commandments  of  God.  The  king,  having 
heard  the  report  of  the  said  commissioners,  said, 
with  an  oath,  that  .they  were  better  men  than  him- 
self or  his  people."  Book  I.  Chap.  V. 

Now,  this  passage  Mr.  Jones  professes  to  quote  : 
and  expressly  refers  to  Perrin  as  the  source  from 
which  he  derived  it.  But,  instead  of  honestly 
copying  the  statement  above  quoted — "  they  caus- 
ed their  children  to  be  baptized,  according  to  the 
primitive  church  ;" — he  alters  and  makes  it  read 
thus — "  They  kept  the  Sabbath  day  ;  observed  the 


ArrE?«-Dix.  323 

ordinance  of  baptism,  according  to  the  primitive 
Church  ;  instructed  their  children  in  the  articles 
of  the  Christian  faith,"  6z;c.  Jones,  II.  Chap.  V. 
Sect.  IV.  p.  71.  Here  is  neither  more  nor  less 
than  the  very  essence  of  forgery  !  It  is  solemnly, 
in  the  face  of  the  public,  representing  an  author  as 
saying  what  he  does  not  say ;  and  that,  most  evi- 
dently,  to  serve  a  sectarian  turn. 

On  these  facts  further  comment  is  unnecessary. 
Such  management  is  unworthy  of  a  good  cause. 
I  leave  the  whole  matter  to  be  estimated  by  every 
candid  reader. — If  Mr.  Jones  had  told  his  readers 
that  there  were  such  passages  as  I  have  quoted  to 
be  found  in  the  documents  from  which  he  professed 
to  derive  testimony,  and  had,  at  the  same  time, 
assigned  his  reasons  for  refusing  to  believe  them, 
all  would  have  been  well.  But,  as  the  matter  now 
stands,  can  he  be  exculpated  from  the  charge  of 
premeditated  deception  ? 

I  know  that  some  of  our  Baptist  brethren  have 
ventured  to  allege  that  the  Waldenses  were  Anti- 
psedobaptist,  because  the  followers  of  Peter  de 
Bruis,  who  was  considered  as  belonging  to  those 
people,  is  said  to  have  rejected  infant  baptism. 
But  the  Petrobrussians  were  only  a  small  fraction, 
probably  not  more  than  a  thirtieth  or  fortieth  part 
of  the  whole  Waldensian  body  ;  and  entirely  dif- 
fered from  the  mass  of  their  brethren  on  this 
subject.  Just  as  well  might  it  be  said  that  the 
Baptist  denomination  in  the  United  States,  keep 
Saturday  as  their  Sabbath,  because  there  are  a 
few  seventh  day  Baptists  in  our  country.  Be- 
sides, after  all,  the  form  in  which  the  Petrobrus- 
sians held  the  Antipeedobaptist  doctrine,  renders  it 
wholly  unavailing  to  the  cause  of  our  Baptist 
brethren.    Peter  de  Bruis  taught  that  infants  were 


324  .      APPRNDIX. 

incapable  of  salvation^  and  therefore  ought  not 
to  be  baptized.  But  if  we  wish  to  know  the  opi- 
nions of  the  VValdcnses  as  a  body,  we  must  go  to 
their  Confessions,  and  other  public  documents. 
This  we  have  done. 

It  may  be  shown,  with  equal  evidence,  that 
these  pious  witnesses  of  the  truth  not  only  bap- 
tized their  children,  but  also  that  they  adopted 
the  Presbyterian  form  of  Church  government. 
That  is,  they  had  no  bishops,  in  the  prelatical 
sense  of  the  word;  their  ministers  were  all  equal; 
each  church  was  governed  by  a  bench  of  Ruling 
Elders ;  and  their  whole  body  regulated  and 
bound  together  by  a  Synodical  Assembly,  which 
met  once  a  year,  at  which  time  their  candidates 
for  the  ministry  were  commonly  examined  and 
ordained.  I  think  we  may  say  with  confidence, 
that  if  ever  there  were  Paedobaptists  and  Presby- 
terians in  Scotland,  they  were  also  found,  long 
before  the  Reformation,  in  the  Valleys  of  Pied- 
mont. 

I  am,  reverend  and  dear  sir,  with  great  respect 
your  brother  in  Christ, 

Samuel  Miller. 

Princeton,  N.  J. 

March  7,  1838. 


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